Lang Carbon Dev

Carbon Development Skill

Overview

Carbon is an experimental successor language to C++, designed by Google to address modern development needs while maintaining seamless bidirectional interoperability with existing C++ codebases. Carbon aims to provide memory safety, modern syntax, and better developer ergonomics while allowing incremental migration from C++.

Key Characteristics:

• Memory safety with compile-time guarantees (following Rust's direction)
• Seamless C++ interoperability without runtime overhead
• Modern generics system with both checked and template generics
• Pattern matching for control flow
• Explicit, lightweight error handling
• Designed for large-scale adoption and migration

Current Status (2025):

• Experimental language under active development
• 0.1 milestone targeted for end of 2026 (ambitious goal)
• Major focus on C++ interop demo and memory safety design
• Built with Bazel, compiler evaluation phase

Quick Reference

Basic Syntax

// Package declaration
package Sample api;

// Import statement
import Main;

// Function definition
fn Add(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 {
    return a + b;
}

// Main entry point
fn Main() -> i32 {
    var result: i32 = Add(5, 10);
    Print("Result: {0}", result);
    return 0;
}

Variable Declarations

// Mutable variable
var x: i32 = 42;

// Immutable variable (const)
let y: i32 = 100;

// Type inference
var z: auto = 42;  // inferred as i32

// Uninitialized (must initialize before use)
var w: i32;
w = 50;

Basic Types

// Integer types
var a: i8 = 127;
var b: i16 = 32767;
var c: i32 = 2147483647;
var d: i64 = 9223372036854775807;

// Unsigned integers
var ua: u8 = 255;
var ub: u16 = 65535;
var uc: u32 = 4294967295;
var ud: u64 = 18446744073709551615;

// Floating point
var f: f32 = 3.14;
var g: f64 = 2.718281828;

// Boolean
var flag: bool = true;

// String
var message: String = "Hello, Carbon!";

// Type alias
alias MyInt = i32;

Functions

// Basic function
fn Greet(name: String) -> String {
    return "Hello, " + name;
}

// Multiple parameters
fn Calculate(x: i32, y: i32, operation: String) -> i32 {
    if (operation == "add") {
        return x + y;
    }
    return x - y;
}

// No return value (void)
fn PrintMessage(msg: String) {
    Print(msg);
}

// Early return
fn Divide(a: f64, b: f64) -> Optional(f64) {
    if (b == 0.0) {
        return Optional.None;
    }
    return Optional.Some(a / b);
}

Control Flow

// If-else
if (condition) {
    // do something
} else if (other_condition) {
    // do something else
} else {
    // default case
}

// While loop
var i: i32 = 0;
while (i < 10) {
    Print("{0}", i);
    i = i + 1;
}

// For loop
for (var j: i32 = 0; j < 10; j = j + 1) {
    Print("{0}", j);
}

// Break and continue
while (true) {
    if (should_exit) {
        break;
    }
    if (should_skip) {
        continue;
    }
    // normal iteration
}

Pattern Matching

// Match statement (replaces switch)
match (value) {
    case 0 => {
        Print("Zero");
    }
    case 1 => {
        Print("One");
    }
    case 2 | 3 | 4 => {
        Print("Two, three, or four");
    }
    default => {
        Print("Something else");
    }
}

// Match with patterns
fn Classify(x: i32) -> String {
    return match (x) {
        case 0 => "zero",
        case 1 => "one",
        case n if n < 0 => "negative",
        case n if n > 0 and n < 10 => "small positive",
        default => "large positive",
    };
}

// Destructuring in match
match (result) {
    case Optional.Some(value) => {
        Print("Got value: {0}", value);
    }
    case Optional.None => {
        Print("No value");
    }
}

Core Concepts

Memory Safety

Carbon's memory safety strategy follows Rust's direction, using the type system for compile-time guarantees without runtime overhead.

Safety Categories:

1. Spatial Memory Safety: Protects against out-of-bounds access

   • Array boundary checks
   • Invalid pointer dereferencing

2. Temporal Memory Safety: Protects against use-after-free

   • Heap use-after-free
   • Stack use-after-return

Build Modes:

// Debug build: immediate runtime detection
var array: [i32; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
var index: i32 = 10;
// In debug mode: caught immediately
var value: i32 = array[index];

// Performance build: undefined behavior if violated
// Optimizer assumes no overflow/out-of-bounds
var x: i32 = 2147483647;
x = x + 1;  // UB in performance mode

// Hardened build: safe but potentially incorrect
// Overflow won't crash but may produce wrong result
// Or program will abort safely

Uninitialized State Tracking:

// Carbon tracks initialization better than C++
var x: i32;
// Print(x);  // Error: use of uninitialized variable

x = 42;
Print(x);  // OK: initialized before use

// Conditional initialization
var y: i32;
if (condition) {
    y = 10;
} else {
    y = 20;
}
// OK: y is initialized in all paths
Print(y);

Dynamic Bounds Checking:

// APIs designed for safety
fn SafeAccess(array: [i32], index: i32) -> Optional(i32) {
    if (index < 0 or index >= array.size()) {
        return Optional.None;
    }
    return Optional.Some(array[index]);
}

// Usage
match (SafeAccess(my_array, idx)) {
    case Optional.Some(value) => {
        Print("Value: {0}", value);
    }
    case Optional.None => {
        Print("Index out of bounds");
    }
}

C++ Interoperability

Carbon's primary design goal is seamless, bidirectional interoperability with C++.

Philosophy:

• Zero runtime overhead for interop calls
• No custom bridge code for simple types/functions
• Call Carbon from C++ and vice versa
• Works even with non-Carbon-aware C++ toolchains
• Incremental migration support

Calling C++ from Carbon:

// Import C++ header
import Cpp library "mylib.h";

fn UseCppFunction() {
    // Call C++ function directly
    var result: i32 = Cpp.MyCppFunction(42);

    // Use C++ class
    var obj: Cpp.MyCppClass = Cpp.MyCppClass();
    obj.Method();
}

// C++ types are accessible
fn ProcessVector(vec: Cpp.std.vector(i32)) {
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < vec.size(); i = i + 1) {
        Print("{0}", vec[i]);
    }
}

Calling Carbon from C++:

// C++ code
#include "carbon_module.h"

int main() {
    // Call Carbon function from C++
    int result = Carbon::MyFunction(10, 20);

    // Use Carbon class
    Carbon::MyClass obj;
    obj.DoSomething();

    return 0;
}

Migration Strategy:

// Phase 1: Minimal migration
// Auto-migrate C++ to interop-focused Carbon dialect
// Maintains C++ semantics, minimal code changes

// Phase 2: Incremental refactoring
// Gradually adopt Carbon idioms
// Introduce memory safety features
// Modernize APIs and patterns

// Example: C++ -> Carbon migration
// C++ original:
// void processData(std::vector<int>& data) {
//     for (auto& item : data) {
//         item *= 2;
//     }
// }

// Phase 1: Direct migration
fn ProcessData(data: Cpp.std.vector(i32)*) {
    var i: i32 = 0;
    while (i < data->size()) {
        (*data)[i] = (*data)[i] * 2;
        i = i + 1;
    }
}

// Phase 2: Carbon idioms
fn ProcessData(data: [i32]*) {
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < data.size(); i = i + 1) {
        data[i] = data[i] * 2;
    }
}

Safety with Interop:

// Carbon code has safety guarantees
fn SafeCarbonFunction(x: i32) -> i32 {
    // Bounds checked, initialization verified
    var array: [i32; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    return array[x % 5];  // Safe modulo operation
}

// C++ interop accepts higher risk
fn CallUnsafeCpp() {
    // C++ doesn't have same safety mechanisms
    // Carbon calling C++ accepts this risk
    unsafe {
        Cpp.LegacyFunction();
    }
}

// Mitigation strategies
fn SafeInterop(data: Cpp.std.vector(i32)) -> Optional(i32) {
    // Add runtime checks around C++ data
    if (data.empty()) {
        return Optional.None;
    }
    return Optional.Some(data[0]);
}

Generics System

Carbon provides both checked generics and template generics for different use cases.

Checked Generics:

// Basic generic function
fn GenericExample[T:! Type](x: T) -> T {
    return x;
}

// Usage with type inference
fn Main() -> i32 {
    var int_val: i32 = GenericExample(42);
    var str_val: String = GenericExample("hello");
    return 0;
}

// Generic with interface constraint
interface Comparable {
    fn Compare[self: Self](other: Self) -> i32;
}

fn Max[T:! Comparable](a: T, b: T) -> T {
    if (a.Compare(b) > 0) {
        return a;
    }
    return b;
}

Interfaces:

// Define an interface
interface Vector {
    fn Add[self: Self](b: Self) -> Self;
    fn Scale[self: Self](v: f64) -> Self;
}

// Implement interface for a type
class Vec2 {
    var x: f64;
    var y: f64;
}

impl Vec2 as Vector {
    fn Add[self: Self](b: Self) -> Self {
        return Vec2{.x = self.x + b.x, .y = self.y + b.y};
    }

    fn Scale[self: Self](v: f64) -> Self {
        return Vec2{.x = self.x * v, .y = self.y * v};
    }
}

// Generic function using interface
fn Transform[T:! Vector](vec: T, factor: f64) -> T {
    return vec.Scale(factor);
}

Template Generics:

// Template generic (C++ style)
// Not checked at definition, checked at instantiation
fn TemplateFunc[template T:! Type](x: T) -> T {
    // Can use any operations on T
    // Errors shown at instantiation site
    return x * 2 + 1;
}

// Useful for C++ interop
fn ProcessCppContainer[template T:! Type](container: T) {
    // Works with any C++ container-like type
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < container.size(); i = i + 1) {
        Print("{0}", container[i]);
    }
}

Advantages of Checked Generics:

// Checked generics catch errors at definition
fn BrokenGeneric[T:! Type](x: T) -> T {
    // Error: Type doesn't have '+' operator
    // return x + x;  // Caught immediately
}

// Fix: add constraint
interface Addable {
    fn Add[self: Self](other: Self) -> Self;
}

fn WorkingGeneric[T:! Addable](x: T) -> T {
    return x.Add(x);  // OK: constraint guarantees Add exists
}

// Better error messages
fn UseGeneric() {
    var s: String = "hello";
    // Error: String doesn't implement Addable
    // var result: String = WorkingGeneric(s);
    // Clear message about missing interface
}

Generic Types:

// Generic class
class Container[T:! Type] {
    var data: [T];

    fn Add[self: Self*](item: T) {
        self->data.push_back(item);
    }

    fn Get[self: Self](index: i32) -> Optional(T) {
        if (index < 0 or index >= self.data.size()) {
            return Optional.None;
        }
        return Optional.Some(self.data[index]);
    }
}

// Usage
fn Main() -> i32 {
    var int_container: Container(i32) = Container(i32)();
    int_container.Add(10);
    int_container.Add(20);

    match (int_container.Get(0)) {
        case Optional.Some(value) => {
            Print("First: {0}", value);
        }
        case Optional.None => {
            Print("Empty");
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

Type System

Primitive Types:

// Sized integers (guaranteed size)
i8, i16, i32, i64      // Signed
u8, u16, u32, u64      // Unsigned

// Floating point
f32, f64

// Boolean
bool

// String
String

// Pointer types
T*                     // Mutable pointer
const T*               // Const pointer

// Array types
[T; N]                 // Fixed-size array
[T]                    // Dynamic array (slice)

Type Aliases:

// Simple alias
alias IntPtr = i32*;
alias Callback = fn(i32) -> i32;

// Generic alias
alias Result[T:! Type, E:! Type] =
    variant { Ok(T), Err(E) };

// Usage
fn Divide(a: i32, b: i32) -> Result(i32, String) {
    if (b == 0) {
        return Result.Err("Division by zero");
    }
    return Result.Ok(a / b);
}

Sum Types (Variants):

// Define a sum type
variant Option[T:! Type] {
    Some(T),
    None
}

// Usage
fn Find(array: [i32], target: i32) -> Option(i32) {
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < array.size(); i = i + 1) {
        if (array[i] == target) {
            return Option.Some(i);
        }
    }
    return Option.None;
}

// Pattern matching on variants
fn UseOption(opt: Option(i32)) {
    match (opt) {
        case Option.Some(value) => {
            Print("Found: {0}", value);
        }
        case Option.None => {
            Print("Not found");
        }
    }
}

Classes:

// Class definition
class Point {
    var x: f64;
    var y: f64;

    // Constructor
    fn Create(x_val: f64, y_val: f64) -> Self {
        return Point{.x = x_val, .y = y_val};
    }

    // Method
    fn Distance[self: Self](other: Self) -> f64 {
        var dx: f64 = self.x - other.x;
        var dy: f64 = self.y - other.y;
        return Math.Sqrt(dx * dx + dy * dy);
    }

    // Mutable method
    fn Move[self: Self*](dx: f64, dy: f64) {
        self->x = self->x + dx;
        self->y = self->y + dy;
    }
}

// Usage
fn Main() -> i32 {
    var p1: Point = Point.Create(0.0, 0.0);
    var p2: Point = Point.Create(3.0, 4.0);

    var dist: f64 = p1.Distance(p2);
    Print("Distance: {0}", dist);

    p1.Move(1.0, 1.0);

    return 0;
}

Inheritance and Composition:

// Base class
class Shape {
    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64;
}

// Derived class
class Circle {
    var radius: f64;
    base: Shape;
}

impl Circle as Shape {
    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64 {
        return 3.14159 * self.radius * self.radius;
    }
}

// Composition
class Rectangle {
    var width: f64;
    var height: f64;
}

class ColoredRectangle {
    var rect: Rectangle;
    var color: String;

    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64 {
        return self.rect.width * self.rect.height;
    }
}

Error Handling

Carbon uses explicit, statically-typed error handling without exceptions.

Basic Error Handling:

// Return sum type for errors
variant Result[T:! Type, E:! Type] {
    Ok(T),
    Err(E)
}

// Function that can fail
fn ParseInt(s: String) -> Result(i32, String) {
    if (s.IsEmpty()) {
        return Result.Err("Empty string");
    }
    // ... parsing logic
    return Result.Ok(42);
}

// Handle errors
fn UseParseInt(input: String) {
    match (ParseInt(input)) {
        case Result.Ok(value) => {
            Print("Parsed: {0}", value);
        }
        case Result.Err(error) => {
            Print("Error: {0}", error);
        }
    }
}

Optional Type:

// Built-in optional type
variant Optional[T:! Type] {
    Some(T),
    None
}

// Function returning optional
fn GetConfig(key: String) -> Optional(String) {
    if (ConfigExists(key)) {
        return Optional.Some(GetConfigValue(key));
    }
    return Optional.None;
}

// Unwrap with default
fn GetOrDefault(opt: Optional(i32), default: i32) -> i32 {
    return match (opt) {
        case Optional.Some(value) => value,
        case Optional.None => default,
    };
}

Error Propagation:

// Error propagation operator (like Rust's ?)
// Expected in future Carbon versions
fn ProcessData() -> Result(i32, String) {
    var data: String = ReadFile("data.txt")?;
    var value: i32 = ParseInt(data)?;
    return Result.Ok(value * 2);
}

// Manual propagation (current approach)
fn ProcessDataManual() -> Result(i32, String) {
    var file_result: Result(String, String) = ReadFile("data.txt");
    match (file_result) {
        case Result.Err(e) => { return Result.Err(e); }
        case Result.Ok(data) => {
            var parse_result: Result(i32, String) = ParseInt(data);
            match (parse_result) {
                case Result.Err(e) => { return Result.Err(e); }
                case Result.Ok(value) => {
                    return Result.Ok(value * 2);
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

Error Context:

// Enriching errors with context
variant Error {
    IoError(String),
    ParseError(String, i32),  // message, line number
    ValidationError(String)
}

fn ReadConfig(path: String) -> Result(Config, Error) {
    var content_result: Result(String, String) = ReadFile(path);
    var content: String = match (content_result) {
        case Result.Err(e) => {
            return Result.Err(Error.IoError(
                "Failed to read " + path + ": " + e
            ));
        }
        case Result.Ok(c) => c,
    };

    // Continue processing...
    return Result.Ok(config);
}

No Exceptions:

// Carbon does NOT have exceptions
// No try-catch blocks
// No throw statements
// Errors are explicit in function signatures

// This forces explicit error handling
fn RiskyOperation() -> Result(i32, String) {
    // Must return Result, can't throw
    if (something_wrong) {
        return Result.Err("Something went wrong");
    }
    return Result.Ok(42);
}

// Caller must handle errors
fn Caller() {
    var result: Result(i32, String) = RiskyOperation();
    // Can't ignore the error - must handle it
    match (result) {
        case Result.Ok(value) => { /* use value */ }
        case Result.Err(e) => { /* handle error */ }
    }
}

Build System

Bazel-Based Build:

# BUILD file for Carbon project
load("@rules_carbon//carbon:defs.bzl", "carbon_library", "carbon_binary")

carbon_library(
    name = "mylib",
    srcs = ["mylib.carbon"],
    deps = [
        "//other:library",
    ],
)

carbon_binary(
    name = "myapp",
    srcs = ["main.carbon"],
    deps = [
        ":mylib",
    ],
)

Compiler Usage:

# Compile Carbon source
carbon compile main.carbon

# Verbose output
carbon -v compile main.carbon

# Specify output
carbon compile main.carbon -o output.o

# Check syntax only
carbon check main.carbon

# Run different compilation phases
carbon compile --phase=parse main.carbon
carbon compile --phase=check main.carbon
carbon compile --phase=lower main.carbon

Project Structure:

my_carbon_project/
├── BUILD                 # Bazel build file
├── WORKSPACE            # Bazel workspace
├── src/
│   ├── main.carbon      # Main entry point
│   ├── lib.carbon       # Library code
│   └── utils.carbon     # Utilities
├── tests/
│   ├── BUILD
│   └── test_lib.carbon  # Tests
└── api/
    └── public.carbon    # Public API

Package System:

// Package declaration
package MyProject api;

// Import from same package
import .Utils;

// Import from other package
import OtherProject;

// Import specific symbols
import OtherProject.{Function, Type};

// Use imported code
fn Main() -> i32 {
    Utils.Helper();
    OtherProject.Function();
    return 0;
}

Common Patterns

Resource Management

// RAII-style resource management
class File {
    var handle: FileHandle;

    fn Open(path: String) -> Result(Self, String) {
        var handle_result: Result(FileHandle, String) =
            OpenFileHandle(path);
        match (handle_result) {
            case Result.Err(e) => {
                return Result.Err(e);
            }
            case Result.Ok(h) => {
                return Result.Ok(File{.handle = h});
            }
        }
    }

    fn Read[self: Self*](buffer: [u8]*) -> Result(i32, String) {
        return ReadFromHandle(self->handle, buffer);
    }

    // Destructor
    destructor [self: Self*] {
        CloseFileHandle(self->handle);
    }
}

// Usage - automatic cleanup
fn ProcessFile(path: String) -> Result(i32, String) {
    var file_result: Result(File, String) = File.Open(path);
    match (file_result) {
        case Result.Err(e) => {
            return Result.Err(e);
        }
        case Result.Ok(file) => {
            var buffer: [u8; 1024] = [0; 1024];
            var read_result: Result(i32, String) =
                file.Read(&buffer);
            // file destroyed automatically here
            return read_result;
        }
    }
}

Builder Pattern

class ConfigBuilder {
    var host: Optional(String) = Optional.None;
    var port: Optional(i32) = Optional.None;
    var timeout: Optional(i32) = Optional.None;

    fn New() -> Self {
        return ConfigBuilder{};
    }

    fn SetHost[self: Self*](host: String) -> Self* {
        self->host = Optional.Some(host);
        return self;
    }

    fn SetPort[self: Self*](port: i32) -> Self* {
        self->port = Optional.Some(port);
        return self;
    }

    fn SetTimeout[self: Self*](timeout: i32) -> Self* {
        self->timeout = Optional.Some(timeout);
        return self;
    }

    fn Build[self: Self] -> Result(Config, String) {
        var h: String = match (self.host) {
            case Optional.Some(v) => v,
            case Optional.None => {
                return Result.Err("Host is required");
            }
        };

        var p: i32 = GetOrDefault(self.port, 8080);
        var t: i32 = GetOrDefault(self.timeout, 30);

        return Result.Ok(Config{
            .host = h,
            .port = p,
            .timeout = t
        });
    }
}

// Usage
fn CreateConfig() -> Result(Config, String) {
    var builder: ConfigBuilder = ConfigBuilder.New();
    return builder
        .SetHost("localhost")
        .SetPort(3000)
        .SetTimeout(60)
        .Build();
}

Iterator Pattern

interface Iterator {
    fn Next[self: Self*] -> Optional(i32);
}

class RangeIterator {
    var current: i32;
    var end: i32;
}

impl RangeIterator as Iterator {
    fn Next[self: Self*] -> Optional(i32) {
        if (self->current >= self->end) {
            return Optional.None;
        }
        var value: i32 = self->current;
        self->current = self->current + 1;
        return Optional.Some(value);
    }
}

fn Range(start: i32, end: i32) -> RangeIterator {
    return RangeIterator{.current = start, .end = end};
}

// Usage
fn Main() -> i32 {
    var iter: RangeIterator = Range(0, 10);
    while (true) {
        match (iter.Next()) {
            case Optional.Some(value) => {
                Print("{0}", value);
            }
            case Optional.None => {
                break;
            }
        }
    }
    return 0;
}

Visitor Pattern

// Define visitor interface
interface NodeVisitor {
    fn VisitNumber[self: Self*](value: i32);
    fn VisitString[self: Self*](value: String);
}

// Define visitable nodes
variant Node {
    Number(i32),
    String(String)
}

fn AcceptVisitor[V:! NodeVisitor](node: Node, visitor: V*) {
    match (node) {
        case Node.Number(value) => {
            visitor->VisitNumber(value);
        }
        case Node.String(value) => {
            visitor->VisitString(value);
        }
    }
}

// Implement concrete visitor
class PrintVisitor {}

impl PrintVisitor as NodeVisitor {
    fn VisitNumber[self: Self*](value: i32) {
        Print("Number: {0}", value);
    }

    fn VisitString[self: Self*](value: String) {
        Print("String: {0}", value);
    }
}

// Usage
fn Main() -> i32 {
    var nodes: [Node] = [
        Node.Number(42),
        Node.String("hello"),
        Node.Number(100)
    ];

    var visitor: PrintVisitor = PrintVisitor{};
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < nodes.size(); i = i + 1) {
        AcceptVisitor(nodes[i], &visitor);
    }

    return 0;
}

Factory Pattern

interface Shape {
    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64;
    fn Perimeter[self: Self] -> f64;
}

class Circle {
    var radius: f64;
}

impl Circle as Shape {
    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64 {
        return 3.14159 * self.radius * self.radius;
    }

    fn Perimeter[self: Self] -> f64 {
        return 2.0 * 3.14159 * self.radius;
    }
}

class Rectangle {
    var width: f64;
    var height: f64;
}

impl Rectangle as Shape {
    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64 {
        return self.width * self.height;
    }

    fn Perimeter[self: Self] -> f64 {
        return 2.0 * (self.width + self.height);
    }
}

// Factory function
fn CreateShape(shape_type: String, params: [f64])
    -> Optional(variant {Circle, Rectangle})
{
    if (shape_type == "circle" and params.size() >= 1) {
        return Optional.Some(Circle{.radius = params[0]});
    } else if (shape_type == "rectangle" and params.size() >= 2) {
        return Optional.Some(Rectangle{
            .width = params[0],
            .height = params[1]
        });
    }
    return Optional.None;
}

Migration from C++

Common C++ to Carbon Translations

Headers and Includes:

// C++
#include <vector>
#include <string>
#include "myheader.h"

// Carbon
import Cpp library "vector";
import Cpp library "string";
import .MyModule;

Class Definition:

// C++
class MyClass {
public:
    MyClass(int x, int y) : x_(x), y_(y) {}

    int getX() const { return x_; }
    void setX(int x) { x_ = x; }

    int compute() const {
        return x_ * y_;
    }

private:
    int x_;
    int y_;
};

// Carbon
class MyClass {
    var x: i32;
    var y: i32;

    fn Create(x: i32, y: i32) -> Self {
        return MyClass{.x = x, .y = y};
    }

    fn GetX[self: Self] -> i32 {
        return self.x;
    }

    fn SetX[self: Self*](x: i32) {
        self->x = x;
    }

    fn Compute[self: Self] -> i32 {
        return self.x * self.y;
    }
}

Templates to Generics:

// C++
template<typename T>
T max(T a, T b) {
    return (a > b) ? a : b;
}

// Carbon - checked generic
interface Comparable {
    fn Compare[self: Self](other: Self) -> i32;
}

fn Max[T:! Comparable](a: T, b: T) -> T {
    if (a.Compare(b) > 0) {
        return a;
    }
    return b;
}

// Or template generic for C++ compatibility
fn MaxTemplate[template T:! Type](a: T, b: T) -> T {
    if (a > b) {
        return a;
    }
    return b;
}

Smart Pointers:

// C++
std::unique_ptr<MyClass> obj =
    std::make_unique<MyClass>(10, 20);
std::shared_ptr<MyClass> shared =
    std::make_shared<MyClass>(10, 20);

// Carbon - ownership via move semantics
var obj: MyClass = MyClass.Create(10, 20);
var moved_obj: MyClass = obj;  // Move ownership

// Reference counting (if needed)
var shared: Shared(MyClass) = Shared.New(MyClass.Create(10, 20));

Exceptions to Results:

// C++
int divide(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) {
        throw std::runtime_error("Division by zero");
    }
    return a / b;
}

try {
    int result = divide(10, 0);
} catch (const std::exception& e) {
    std::cerr << "Error: " << e.what() << std::endl;
}

// Carbon
fn Divide(a: i32, b: i32) -> Result(i32, String) {
    if (b == 0) {
        return Result.Err("Division by zero");
    }
    return Result.Ok(a / b);
}

match (Divide(10, 0)) {
    case Result.Ok(value) => {
        Print("Result: {0}", value);
    }
    case Result.Err(error) => {
        Print("Error: {0}", error);
    }
}

Namespaces to Packages:

// C++
namespace MyNamespace {
namespace Utils {
    void helper() { }
}
}

MyNamespace::Utils::helper();

// Carbon
package MyProject.Utils api;

fn Helper() { }

// Usage
import MyProject.Utils;
Utils.Helper();

Migration Checklist

Phase 1: Initial Setup

• Set up Carbon toolchain and build system (Bazel)
• Identify C++ libraries to keep vs migrate
• Create interop layer for C++ dependencies
• Set up testing infrastructure

Phase 2: Incremental Migration

• Start with leaf modules (no dependencies)
• Migrate simple utility functions first
• Convert headers to Carbon packages
• Update build files to include Carbon sources
• Ensure tests pass with mixed C++/Carbon codebase

Phase 3: Refactoring

• Replace raw pointers with Carbon ownership
• Convert exceptions to Result types
• Adopt Carbon idioms (match, generics)
• Add memory safety features
• Improve error handling

Phase 4: Optimization

• Profile mixed codebase
• Identify performance bottlenecks
• Optimize hot paths
• Reduce C++ interop overhead where possible

Carbon Idioms

Prefer Match Over If-Else Chains

// Less idiomatic
fn Classify(x: i32) -> String {
    if (x == 0) {
        return "zero";
    } else if (x > 0 and x < 10) {
        return "small";
    } else if (x >= 10) {
        return "large";
    } else {
        return "negative";
    }
}

// More idiomatic
fn Classify(x: i32) -> String {
    return match (x) {
        case 0 => "zero",
        case n if n > 0 and n < 10 => "small",
        case n if n >= 10 => "large",
        default => "negative",
    };
}

Use Type System for Validation

// Less idiomatic - runtime validation everywhere
fn ProcessAge(age: i32) {
    if (age < 0 or age > 150) {
        Print("Invalid age");
        return;
    }
    // use age
}

// More idiomatic - validated type
class Age {
    var value: i32;

    fn Create(v: i32) -> Result(Self, String) {
        if (v < 0 or v > 150) {
            return Result.Err("Invalid age");
        }
        return Result.Ok(Age{.value = v});
    }
}

fn ProcessAge(age: Age) {
    // age is guaranteed valid
    Print("Age: {0}", age.value);
}

Make Invalid States Unrepresentable

// Less idiomatic - multiple booleans
class Connection {
    var is_connected: bool;
    var is_authenticated: bool;
    var is_encrypted: bool;
    // Can be in invalid states!
}

// More idiomatic - state machine with variants
variant ConnectionState {
    Disconnected,
    Connected,
    Authenticated,
    Encrypted
}

class Connection {
    var state: ConnectionState;

    fn Connect[self: Self*] -> Result((), String) {
        match (self->state) {
            case ConnectionState.Disconnected => {
                self->state = ConnectionState.Connected;
                return Result.Ok(());
            }
            default => {
                return Result.Err("Already connected");
            }
        }
    }
}

Prefer Immutability

// Less idiomatic
fn ProcessData(data: [i32]*) {
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < data->size(); i = i + 1) {
        data[i] = data[i] * 2;  // Mutation
    }
}

// More idiomatic
fn ProcessData(data: [i32]) -> [i32] {
    var result: [i32] = [];
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < data.size(); i = i + 1) {
        result.push_back(data[i] * 2);
    }
    return result;
}

Use Interfaces for Abstraction

// Less idiomatic - concrete types everywhere
fn PrintCircle(c: Circle) {
    Print("Area: {0}", c.Area());
}

fn PrintRectangle(r: Rectangle) {
    Print("Area: {0}", r.Area());
}

// More idiomatic - interface abstraction
interface Shape {
    fn Area[self: Self] -> f64;
}

fn PrintShape[T:! Shape](s: T) {
    Print("Area: {0}", s.Area());
}

Troubleshooting

Compilation Errors

Uninitialized Variable:

// Error
var x: i32;
Print(x);  // Error: use of uninitialized variable

// Fix
var x: i32 = 0;
Print(x);

Type Mismatch:

// Error
var x: i32 = 42;
var y: f64 = x;  // Error: type mismatch

// Fix
var x: i32 = 42;
var y: f64 = Convert.ToF64(x);

Missing Interface Implementation:

// Error
fn UseComparable[T:! Comparable](x: T) { }

class MyType { }

fn Main() -> i32 {
    var obj: MyType = MyType{};
    UseComparable(obj);  // Error: MyType doesn't implement Comparable
    return 0;
}

// Fix
impl MyType as Comparable {
    fn Compare[self: Self](other: Self) -> i32 {
        // Implementation
        return 0;
    }
}

C++ Interop Issues

Header Not Found:

// Error
import Cpp library "myheader.h";  // Error: file not found

// Fix - check include paths in BUILD file
carbon_library(
    name = "mylib",
    srcs = ["mylib.carbon"],
    copts = ["-I/path/to/headers"],
)

Type Incompatibility:

// Error - C++ type not directly usable
fn UseCppVector(vec: Cpp.std.vector(i32)) {
    vec[0] = 42;  // Might fail
}

// Fix - use C++ API properly
fn UseCppVector(vec: Cpp.std.vector(i32)*) {
    vec->at(0) = 42;  // Use C++ methods
}

Calling Convention Mismatch:

// Error - wrong calling convention for C++ function
fn CallCppFunction() {
    Cpp.MyFunction();  // Might fail if signature wrong
}

// Fix - match C++ signature exactly
import Cpp library "mylib.h";

fn CallCppFunction() {
    var result: i32 = Cpp.MyFunction(42, "hello");
}

Build System Issues

Missing Dependency:

# Error in BUILD file
carbon_binary(
    name = "myapp",
    srcs = ["main.carbon"],
    # Missing dependency
)

# Fix
carbon_binary(
    name = "myapp",
    srcs = ["main.carbon"],
    deps = [
        ":mylib",
        "//other:dependency",
    ],
)

Circular Dependency:

# Error - circular deps
carbon_library(
    name = "a",
    srcs = ["a.carbon"],
    deps = [":b"],
)

carbon_library(
    name = "b",
    srcs = ["b.carbon"],
    deps = [":a"],  # Circular!
)

# Fix - refactor to break cycle
carbon_library(
    name = "common",
    srcs = ["common.carbon"],
)

carbon_library(
    name = "a",
    srcs = ["a.carbon"],
    deps = [":common"],
)

carbon_library(
    name = "b",
    srcs = ["b.carbon"],
    deps = [":common"],
)

Memory Safety Issues

Use After Move:

// Error
var x: MyClass = MyClass.Create();
var y: MyClass = x;  // x moved to y
x.Method();  // Error: use after move

// Fix - clone or use references
var x: MyClass = MyClass.Create();
var y: MyClass* = &x;  // Borrow, don't move
x.Method();  // OK

Out of Bounds Access:

// Error in debug build
var array: [i32; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
var value: i32 = array[10];  // Panic in debug mode

// Fix - use safe access
fn SafeGet(array: [i32], index: i32) -> Optional(i32) {
    if (index >= 0 and index < array.size()) {
        return Optional.Some(array[index]);
    }
    return Optional.None;
}

Generic Type Issues

Constraint Not Satisfied:

// Error
fn RequiresComparable[T:! Comparable](x: T) { }

fn Main() -> i32 {
    var s: String = "hello";
    RequiresComparable(s);  // Error: String doesn't implement Comparable
    return 0;
}

// Fix - implement interface
impl String as Comparable {
    fn Compare[self: Self](other: Self) -> i32 {
        // Implementation
        return 0;
    }
}

Type Inference Failure:

// Error - can't infer type
var x: auto = SomeGenericFunction();  // Ambiguous

// Fix - specify type explicitly
var x: i32 = SomeGenericFunction();
// Or provide type parameter
var x: auto = SomeGenericFunction[i32]();

Best Practices

1. Use checked generics by default, template generics only for C++ interop
2. Make error handling explicit with Result/Optional types
3. Prefer immutability unless mutation is clearly needed
4. Use pattern matching instead of if-else chains
5. Leverage the type system to prevent invalid states
6. Follow RAII principles for resource management
7. Start with C++ interop, gradually refactor to Carbon idioms
8. Test extensively during migration from C++
9. Use interfaces to define contracts and enable polymorphism
10. Document safety assumptions especially around C++ interop

Zero and Default Values

Uninitialized Variables

// Variables must be initialized before use
var x: i32;  // Declared but uninitialized
// Print(x);  // Error: use of uninitialized variable

x = 42;
Print(x);  // OK: now initialized

// Conditional initialization - all paths must initialize
var y: i32;
if (condition) {
    y = 10;
} else {
    y = 20;
}
Print(y);  // OK: initialized in all paths

Default/Zero Values by Type

Struct/Class Initialization

class Config {
    var host: String;
    var port: i32;
    var debug: bool;
}

// All fields must be initialized
var config: Config = Config{
    .host = "localhost",
    .port = 8080,
    .debug = false
};

// Factory function for defaults
class Config {
    fn Default() -> Self {
        return Config{
            .host = "localhost",
            .port = 8080,
            .debug = false
        };
    }
}

var config: Config = Config.Default();

Optional for Nullable Values

// Carbon discourages null pointers
// Use Optional instead
fn FindUser(id: i32) -> Optional(User) {
    if (UserExists(id)) {
        return Optional.Some(GetUser(id));
    }
    return Optional.None;
}

// Handle optionals
fn GetUsername(id: i32) -> String {
    match (FindUser(id)) {
        case Optional.Some(user) => {
            return user.name;
        }
        case Optional.None => {
            return "Unknown";
        }
    }
}

// Default value pattern
fn GetOrDefault[T:! Type](opt: Optional(T), default: T) -> T {
    return match (opt) {
        case Optional.Some(value) => value,
        case Optional.None => default,
    };
}

Concurrency

Carbon's concurrency model is still under active design. The current focus is on memory safety and C++ interop before finalizing concurrency features.

Current Status (2025)

// Note: Concurrency syntax is subject to change
// This represents expected patterns based on design documents

// Thread safety through ownership
// Carbon aims to prevent data races at compile time
// Similar to Rust's Send/Sync traits

class ThreadSafeCounter {
    var count: i32;

    fn Increment[self: Self*] {
        // Atomic or synchronized access (design pending)
        self->count = self->count + 1;
    }
}

Expected Concurrency Patterns

// Async/await (expected in future versions)
async fn FetchData(url: String) -> Result(Data, Error) {
    var response: Response = await Http.Get(url);
    return response.Body();
}

// Structured concurrency (expected)
fn ProcessConcurrently(items: [Item]) -> [Result] {
    return parallel for (item in items) {
        ProcessItem(item)
    };
}

C++ Interop for Concurrency

// For now, use C++ threading via interop
import Cpp library "thread";
import Cpp library "mutex";

fn UseCppThreading() {
    var mutex: Cpp.std.mutex = Cpp.std.mutex();

    // Lock guard pattern
    var lock: Cpp.std.lock_guard(Cpp.std.mutex) =
        Cpp.std.lock_guard(&mutex);

    // Critical section
    DoWork();
}

// Dispatch to thread pool
fn RunInBackground(task: fn()) {
    var thread: Cpp.std.thread = Cpp.std.thread(task);
    thread.detach();
}

Safety Philosophy

// Carbon's concurrency will emphasize:
// 1. Compile-time data race prevention
// 2. Ownership-based thread safety
// 3. Explicit sharing markers
// 4. Integration with memory safety model

// Expected patterns:
// - Values are "thread-local" by default
// - Explicit markers for shared state
// - Channels for communication (like Go/Rust)
// - Actor model support (planned)

See patterns-concurrency-dev for cross-language concurrency patterns.

Metaprogramming

Carbon provides compile-time metaprogramming through generics and template generics, but does NOT support runtime reflection.

Checked Generics

// Checked generics with interfaces
interface Printable {
    fn Print[self: Self]();
}

fn PrintAll[T:! Printable](items: [T]) {
    for (var i: i32 = 0; i < items.size(); i = i + 1) {
        items[i].Print();
    }
}

// Errors caught at definition site
fn BrokenGeneric[T:! Type](x: T) -> T {
    // Error: Type doesn't guarantee '+' operator
    // return x + x;
}

Template Generics

// Template gener

…(truncated)