Pysr

Using PySR Effectively

PySR discovers symbolic expressions (readable equations) that fit data, using an evolutionary search over expression trees with a Julia backend (SymbolicRegression.jl). You get a Pareto front of equations trading accuracy against complexity, not a single black-box model.

This guide is distilled from the PySR documentation and several hundred real user threads, checked against PySR 2.0.0. Full docs: https://ai.damtp.cam.ac.uk/pysr/

Quick start

# pip install pysr  (Julia is downloaded automatically on first import; no separate install)
import numpy as np
from pysr import PySRRegressor

X = 2 * np.random.randn(100, 5)
y = 2 * np.cos(X[:, 3]) + X[:, 0] ** 2 - 2

model = PySRRegressor(
    binary_operators=["+", "-", "*", "/"],
    unary_operators=["cos"],
    niterations=100,
)
model.fit(X, y)
print(model)            # Pareto front: complexity, loss, equation
model.predict(X)        # uses the auto-selected "best" equation
model.sympy()           # SymPy expression
model.latex()           # LaTeX string

model.equations_ is a pandas DataFrame with complexity, loss, score, equation, sympy_format, lambda_format. Pass a row index to predict, sympy, latex, jax, pytorch to use any equation on the front, not just the selected one.

Critical performance fact: keep the process alive

Julia is JIT-compiled. The first .fit() in a Python process pays Julia startup plus compilation (roughly a minute or two); every later fit in the same process starts almost instantly. The single most common agent mistake is running each experiment as a fresh python script.py, paying the full compile cost every time.

Instead:

• Keep one long-lived Python session (a background IPython/Jupyter kernel, a REPL tool, or any mechanism you already have) and run successive experiments in it. Creating a new PySRRegressor per experiment is cheap; the expensive state is the Julia runtime, which lives per-process.
• If you must use scripts, structure iteration so parameter tweaks happen inside one process rather than via repeated relaunches.
• Reuse an existing Python environment that already has pysr installed rather than creating a fresh environment per task (a new environment re-resolves and precompiles the Julia packages).
• Do not misdiagnose the first-run compilation pause as a hang. "Compiling Julia backend..." taking a minute or two is normal.

Running plain python scripts works fine; this is an optimization, not a requirement.

Candidate equations with guesses

Use guesses and template expressions as the main interfaces for injecting knowledge about the problem into a search. Use guesses to supply plausible equations that the search can modify or discard. Use template expressions to specify structure that every candidate must satisfy. They can be combined by supplying guesses for a template's components and parameters.

Pass candidate expressions through the PySRRegressor constructor. Expression strings use Julia syntax, the model's input variable names, and its enabled operators:

model = PySRRegressor(
    operators={2: ["+", "*"]},
    guesses=["x0 + 0.5 * x1", "x0 * (x1 + 1.0)"],
)

For single-output regression, pass a list of candidates. For multiple outputs, pass one candidate list per output in target-column order: guesses=[["x0 + x1"], ["x0 * x1"]]. For templates, use dictionaries keyed by component and parameter names. In component formulas, #1, #2, and so on refer to the component's arguments.

Guesses are mixed into populations throughout the search. With should_optimize_constants=True, their constants and template parameters are optimized before insertion. fraction_replaced_guesses controls the fraction replaced from guesses at the end of each cycle; its default is 0.001.

Set guesses on the estimator, never on .fit(). Between fits, model.set_params(guesses=[...], warm_start=True) replaces the guesses while continuing the existing search. Keep the data representation and search space fixed for continuation.

Recommended workflow

1. Subsample the data. Symbolic regression rarely needs more than a few thousand rows; ~1,000 to 5,000 representative rows often suffice even when millions are available. More rows help with many features, heavy noise, or rare regimes. PySR 2.0 uses automatic batching for larger datasets by default. Pass batching=False when you need every search evaluation to use the full dataset; with batching enabled, hall-of-fame candidates are still reevaluated on the full dataset. Fewer rows still mean proportionally faster search.
2. Choose the minimal operator set. Only operators plausible for the domain. Redundant operators (e.g. pow alongside square and cube, or - alongside neg) blow up the search space. Fewer operators is better. If the target is a polynomial, use ["+", "-", "*"] and skip / and ^ entirely.
3. Start from defaults otherwise. The default hyperparameters (populations, parsimony, mutation weights, ncycles_per_iteration) were tuned by large-scale search in 2024-2025. Do not copy hyperparameter recipes from old forum threads or papers; most predate the retuning.
4. Short runs first. Debug the setup with a few-minute run: check operators, loss, and that sensible equations appear. Then do one long run for the real search.
5. Long final run. Evolution does not converge in the usual sense; a search that looks stalled can jump to a new expression family hours later. Set niterations very large and control the budget with timeout_in_seconds (wall clock), max_evals (cap on total expression evaluations, for compute-matched comparisons; note niterations * populations * population_size is NOT an evaluation count), or set early_stop_condition (e.g. "stop_if(loss, complexity) = loss < 1e-6 && complexity < 10", a Julia function string of (loss, complexity)). Results stream to outputs/<run_id>/hall_of_fame.csv, so you can monitor progress and read partial results at any time. In IPython, pressing q then Enter stops the search gracefully.
6. Inspect the whole Pareto front, not just the auto-selected row. See "Choosing an equation" below.

model_selection="best" picks the equation with highest score among those with loss within 1.5x of the best loss; "accuracy" picks the lowest-loss row. The score column is the negative log-loss slope per unit complexity: a large score marks the "kink" where accuracy jumps for little added complexity. These are heuristics for predict's default; report and examine the full table.

Choosing an equation

Print model.equations_ and look at where loss drops sharply as complexity increases; that kink is usually the interesting equation. Evaluate the top few candidates on held-out data (model.predict(X_test, index=i)) when overfitting is plausible. Check limiting behavior (x -> 0, x -> inf) against domain expectations. Prefer presenting 2-3 candidates with the tradeoff to silently picking one.

Losses and weights

Default is MSE. Common expert moves:

• Robust to outliers: elementwise_loss="L1DistLoss()" (median-seeking rather than mean-seeking).
• Known per-point uncertainty: model.fit(X, y, weights=1/sigma**2); the built-in losses apply weights automatically. Custom weighted form: elementwise_loss="myloss(x, y, w) = w * abs(x - y)^2".
• Target spans many orders of magnitude: MSE is dominated by the largest values. Use a log-space loss, e.g.

elementwise_loss = """function loss_fnc(prediction, target)
    scatter_loss = abs(log((abs(prediction)+1e-20) / (abs(target)+1e-20)))
    sign_loss = 10 * (sign(prediction) - sign(target))^2
    return scatter_loss + sign_loss
end"""

• Percentage/relative error: divide by the target, never the prediction (dividing by the prediction lets evolution win by sending predictions to infinity), and beware targets near zero.
• Any loss from LossFunctions.jl works as a string: "HuberLoss(1.0)", "LPDistLoss{3}()", etc.
• Binary classification: encode targets as +1/-1 and use a margin loss such as "L2MarginLoss()"; pass predictions through a sigmoid yourself afterwards if you need probabilities.
• Known asymptotic or boundary behavior (y -> 0 as x -> inf, exact value at a boundary, a known limit): add a few synthetic data points along the asymptote or at the boundary with very large weights. This is the standard trick and usually beats a custom objective. For strict enforcement, numerically estimate the limit inside a loss_function and add a graded penalty.
• Losses must be deterministic (results are cached) and non-negative unless loss_scale="linear", which permits negative losses (e.g. log-likelihoods).

elementwise_loss receives scalars (prediction, target) or (prediction, target, weight). Never sum or broadcast inside it. Objectives needing the whole prediction vector or the expression tree use loss_function instead (see below).

Scaling and feature count

• Normalization is optional. Constants are sampled near N(0,1) and mutated multiplicatively, so wildly scaled features can slow the search, but normalizing inserts nuisance constants into the final equation and hides physical meaning. Prefer natural units; rescale only if the search visibly struggles.
• Up to roughly 10 features: no special handling.
• Tens of features: raise maxsize, provide more rows, and let the search select features itself; it is reasonably good at this. Automatic batching handles large datasets. An equation forced to contain all of 30+ features would need maxsize well above 100.
• More than ~50 features: the primary fix is smarter features or structure. Engineer aggregate features from domain knowledge, or use a template expression over a sensible decomposition. For structured data (fields, images, sequences, graphs), a naive one-column-per-pixel tabular encoding is usually the wrong move; build physically meaningful features, or train a neural network with the right inductive bias and symbolically distill its components (see arXiv:2006.11287). If there is no smarter representation available, select_k_features=k (gradient-boosting pre-selection) is the fallback.
• If the search omits a variable the user expected: PySR only optimizes accuracy and simplicity, so omission means the variable did not reduce loss enough to pay for its complexity. Forcing inclusion requires a custom loss that penalizes its absence.

PDE discovery (spatiotemporal data)

To discover u_t = f(u, u_x, u_xx, ...) from field data u(x, t), turn it into normal regression: every grid point is one sample, the columns are the field and its spatial derivatives, and the target is the time derivative. Unlike a fixed candidate library, PySR finds products like u*u_x itself.

• Spatial derivatives: spectral differentiation on periodic clean grids; otherwise Savitzky-Golay, e.g. savgol_filter(U, 21, 3, deriv=1, delta=dx, axis=-1). Plain finite differences are only safe on clean data, and spectral derivatives amplify noise catastrophically.
• Target: central differences of the snapshots. If snapshots are sparse or noisy in time, smooth along the time axis first or sample more finely. Trim stencil margins on non-periodic grids.
• Worth trying: complexity_of_variables=[1, 2, 3, ...], one entry per feature in column order, so u costs 1, u_x costs 2, u_xx costs 3; this biases the front toward low-order terms. Units (X_units=["m/s", "s^-1", ...]) similarly prune dimensionally impossible terms.
• Read the whole Pareto front for the elbow, not just the best loss. Fitted constants are approximate under noise; validate by simulating the discovered PDE forward from a held-out initial condition.

Template expressions: use when structure is known

Plain search is the default. Escalate to TemplateExpressionSpec when the user knows structure that a free-form tree search would have to rediscover (or would violate). Users very often under-use this feature; suggest it whenever you see:

• A known outer form: y = sin(f(x1, x2)) + g(x3), a rational function, a known envelope like x*(1-x)*g(x).
• Per-category constants: same formula, different coefficients per class/object/condition (parameters).
• Shared subexpressions across several outputs, or coupled multi-output problems.
• Derivative or integral relations (differential operator D).
• Hard requirements on which variables may appear where.

from pysr import PySRRegressor, TemplateExpressionSpec

spec = TemplateExpressionSpec(
    combine="sin(f(x1, x2)) + g(x3)^2",
    expressions=["f", "g"],
    variable_names=["x1", "x2", "x3"],
)
model = PySRRegressor(expression_spec=spec, binary_operators=["+", "-", "*", "/"])
model.fit(X, y)

With per-category parameters, pass the category as a column of X. Julia indexing is 1-based, so add one if your category IDs start at zero:

spec = TemplateExpressionSpec(
    combine="p[class] * f(x1, x2) + q[class]",
    expressions=["f"],
    variable_names=["x1", "x2", "class"],
    parameters={"p": 3, "q": 3},
)
model = PySRRegressor(
    expression_spec=spec,
    operators={2: ["+", "*"]},
    guesses=[{
        "f": "#1 + #2",
        "p": [5.0, 10.0, 0.8],
        "q": [0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
    }],
)

parameters={"p": 3, "q": 3} declares the vector lengths. The guess supplies initial values for those vectors and a formula for f. Component and parameter names must be disjoint, and every key must be declared in the specification. Supply every component formula. Each parameter vector must match its declared length and can be a Python list or one-dimensional NumPy array. You can omit a parameter vector to keep its normal initialization.

#1 and #2 refer to the arguments passed to the component, here x1 and x2. A template can also pass a parameter into a component. With combine="f(x, p[1])", #2 refers to p[1].

Supplied parameter values remain learnable. PySR copies them into the candidate, so optimization does not modify the caller's array. Numeric parameter values use the model's precision. Template parameter guesses require SymbolicRegression.jl 2.3.0 or later.

The combine string is arbitrary Julia: multiple statements, reuse of a subexpression (fx = f(x); fx + fx^2), evaluating the same f at different arguments (f(x1) - f(x2)), derivatives (df = D(f, 1); df(x)). Multi-output/vector problems: put the extra targets in X as columns, return the per-row residual from the template, fit against dummy y with elementwise_loss="(p, t) -> p" (the template output is then the loss itself).

Template caveats (PySR 2.0):

• No .sympy(), .latex(), .jax(), .pytorch() export; combine can contain arbitrary Julia, so read component strings from model.equations_ and reassemble manually. Component arguments print as #1, #2 (argument positions, since f may be called at different inputs).
• Values inside the combine string are ValidVectors: raw data in .x, validity flag in .valid. Ordinary arithmetic propagates validity automatically; custom manipulations must unwrap and rebuild (ValidVector(raw, valid)).
• Write Float32-safe literals in the combine string (0.5f0, not 0.5) or convert explicitly; a bare Float64 literal can break type stability.
• Combining a template with a custom objective requires loss_function_expression (not loss_function).
• Use TemplateExpressionSpec with parameters for learnable parameters. The pre-1.4 template API (function_symbols, lambda-style combine) was removed in PySR 2.0.

Custom value types with TypeSpec

TypeSpec makes expression-tree nodes hold generated Julia structs. It is independent of expression_spec, so custom values can also use a fixed structure.

Python values supply fields in declaration order. Here ((1.0, 2.0, 3.0), np.uint32(7)) supplies triple and code; the inner tuple remains one field. Keep X two-dimensional and y one-dimensional; assign object cells individually so NumPy does not create extra axes.

import numpy as np
from pysr import PySRRegressor, TemplateExpressionSpec, TypeSpec

value = ((1.0, 2.0, 3.0), np.uint32(7))
X = np.empty((1, 1), dtype=object)
y = np.empty(1, dtype=object)
X[0, 0] = value
y[0] = value

packet = TypeSpec(
    "Packet",
    fields={"triple": "NTuple{3,Float64}", "code": "UInt32"},
    sample="rng -> Packet(ntuple(_ -> randn(rng), 3), rand(rng, UInt32))",
    mutate="""function (rng, value::Packet, temperature::Float64)  # note annotation isn't required; shown for documentation purposes
        triple = ntuple(i -> value.triple[i] + temperature * randn(rng), 3)
        bit = UInt32(1) << rand(rng, 0:31)
        Packet(triple, xor(value.code, bit))
    end""",
    scalar_constants="value -> collect(value.triple)",
    with_scalar_constants=(
        "(value, c) -> Packet((c[1], c[2], c[3]), value.code)"
    ),
    is_valid="value -> all(isfinite, value.triple)",
)

operators = {
    1: [
        "negate_packet(x::Packet)::Packet = "
        "Packet(ntuple(i -> -x.triple[i], 3), x.code)"
    ],
    2: [
        "combine_packets(x::Packet, y::Packet)::Packet = "
        "Packet(ntuple(i -> x.triple[i] + y.triple[i], 3), "
        "xor(x.code, y.code))",
        """
        choose_parameter(a::Packet, b::Packet) = a
        choose_parameter(a::Packet, b::ValidVector) =
            ValidVector(map(_ -> a, b.x), b.valid)
        """,
    ],
}
loss = """
packet_loss(p::Packet, y::Packet)::Float64 =
    sum((p.triple[i] - y.triple[i])^2 for i in 1:3) +
    Float64(count_ones(xor(p.code, y.code)))
"""

model = PySRRegressor(
    type_spec=packet,
    operators=operators,
    elementwise_loss=loss,
)

Typed constants can use the generated constructor in ordinary or template-component guess strings:

ordinary_guess = ["combine_packets(x0, Packet((1.0, 2.0, 3.0), UInt32(7)))"]

template_component_guess = [{"f": "combine_packets(#1, Packet((1.0, 2.0, 3.0), UInt32(7)))"}]

PySR parses these strings in the generated TypeSpec configuration module, where Packet and its operators are already defined. They need no parser closure or extra import.

Template parameter values use the same TypeSpec as the data. A Python list preserves value as one logical Packet; a one-dimensional object array does the same explicitly:

packet_parameter_array = np.empty(1, dtype=object)
packet_parameter_array[0] = value

packet_template = TemplateExpressionSpec(
    combine="choose_parameter(p[1], f(x))",
    expressions=["f"],
    variable_names=["x"],
    parameters={"p": 1},
)
packet_guess_from_list = [{"f": "#1", "p": [value]}]
packet_guess_from_array = [{"f": "#1", "p": packet_parameter_array}]
model = PySRRegressor(
    type_spec=packet,
    expression_spec=packet_template,
    operators=operators,
    elementwise_loss=loss,
    guesses=packet_guess_from_array,
)

sample(rng) -> Packet creates constant leaves. mutate(rng, value, temperature) -> Packet perturbs continuous fields and evolves the discrete field. scalar_constants(Packet) -> Vector{Float64} exposes only optimizable scalars; with_scalar_constants(Packet, Vector{Float64}) -> Packet rebuilds the value after optimization and must preserve non-optimized fields. is_valid(Packet) -> Bool rejects invalid intermediate values. The extraction and reconstruction hooks must be supplied together.

Optional hooks: init is a Julia callable () -> Packet for initialization; string is Packet -> AbstractString for printing; preamble is Julia source evaluated before the generated type and hooks; definitions is Julia source evaluated right after the generated type, for constructors and methods that mention it; loss_type names the concrete AbstractFloat returned by a full custom objective. Elementwise losses cannot take loss_type; their return type is inferred, so the example annotates packet_loss as Float64 to keep it concrete.

When adapting this pattern, check that Python values match the declared field count and order; each field converts to its Julia type; every searched operator is type-stable and returns Packet; and the loss returns one real scalar per pair; reserve Inf for invalid evaluations.

Custom operators

Pass Julia definitions as strings, and always provide the SymPy mapping (with SymPy functions, never numpy/scipy, or export and predict will break):

model = PySRRegressor(
    binary_operators=["+", "*"],
    unary_operators=["inv(x) = 1/x", "gauss(x) = exp(-x^2)"],
    extra_sympy_mappings={
        "inv": lambda x: 1/x,
        "gauss": lambda x: sympy.exp(-x**2),
    },
)

Rules that prevent most operator bugs:

• The operator must accept any real input (PySR probes far outside your data range). Return a typed NaN for invalid inputs: my_sqrt(x) = x >= 0 ? sqrt(x) : convert(typeof(x), NaN). Candidates producing NaN anywhere on the data are discarded with infinite loss, which is exactly how domain restrictions should be handled. Built-ins (sqrt, log, acosh, ...) are already protected this way; prefer them over hand-rolled versions.
• Preserve the input type: write constants as T(2.5) with a where {T} signature, or 2.5f0 for Float32 (the default precision). A bare 2.5 or 0 is Float64/Int64 and breaks Float32 pipelines.
• One or two scalar arguments in, one scalar out. For three or more arguments, use the arity-keyed operators dictionary or a template.
• For a function from a Julia package: from pysr import jl; jl.seval("import Pkg; Pkg.add(\"SpecialFunctions\")"); jl.seval("using SpecialFunctions"), wrap it safely, then use it as an operator. Anything importable in Julia works.
• Operators with no closed sympy form: map to a class myop(sympy.Function): pass placeholder; export then works symbolically, though predict needs a numeric mapping (call model.refresh() after changing mappings).

Custom objectives (loss_function)

When the loss needs the whole prediction vector, the expression tree, derivatives, or auxiliary data, write a full Julia objective:

objective = """
function my_objective(tree, dataset::Dataset{T,L}, options) where {T,L}
    prediction, completed = eval_tree_array(tree, dataset.X, options)
    !completed && return L(Inf)
    residuals = prediction .- dataset.y
    return sum(abs2, residuals) / dataset.n
end
"""
model = PySRRegressor(loss_function=objective, binary_operators=["+", "*", "-"])

Hard-won rules from the issue tracker:

• Always check the completed flag from eval_tree_array before using predictions; on failure the array contains garbage.
• Return L(Inf) for invalid evaluations, but use graded finite penalties for structural preferences (e.g. L(1e6 * n_violations)), so evolution gets a gradient toward compliance. All-or-nothing Inf for structure makes the target unreachable, because intermediate mutations must survive.
• dataset.X is features x samples (transposed relative to Python!). dataset.n is the number of samples. dataset.y is a vector.
• With automatic batching, a three-argument objective receives the active-batch dataset. Use (tree, full_dataset, options, idx) when the objective needs the full dataset and selected row indices.
• Performance: this function runs millions of times. Keep it type-stable (no untyped globals; make globals const or interpolate values into the string), no printing, no Python callbacks (the GIL serializes everything), vectorize, and prefer Distances.jl/standard packages. Diagnose with @code_warntype or BenchmarkTools in a separate Julia session. Do not name it eval_loss (collides with an internal function).
• Auxiliary data (extra targets, derivative observations, group ids): append as columns of X and slice inside the objective, or interpolate literal arrays into the objective string. Note appended columns are visible to the search as features unless the search cannot use them (template) or you penalize their use.
• Derivatives of candidates: eval_diff_tree_array (one feature) / eval_grad_tree_array (all features), useful for monotonicity penalties and physics-informed losses. For templates use D(f, i) inside the combine string instead.
• With a custom objective that reinterprets the tree (split subtrees, recursion), the printed equation is the raw tree, not your interpretation; you must decode it yourself.
• Custom objectives that manipulate the tree symbolically generally break .sympy()/.predict(); extract what you need manually.

Symbolic constraints by walking the tree

Any structural rule that constraints/nested_constraints cannot express (required features, forbidden variable placements, restrictions on constant values, operator-specific rules) is implemented by traversing the expression tree inside the objective. Trees support Julia's standard collection functions: any(f, tree), all(f, tree), count(f, tree), sum(f, tree), foreach(f, tree), collect(tree), and for node in tree (depth-first). Prefer the functional forms; for node in tree allocates a stack while count/sum/any traverse directly. Node fields:

• node.degree: 0 = leaf, 1 = unary, 2 = binary
• node.l, node.r: children (subtrees, themselves traversable)
• node.constant (leaves only): constant vs variable; node.val: the constant's value; node.feature: 1-based feature index
• node.op: 1-based index into the operator list you passed, per arity

Worked example: allow ^ only with a lone constant exponent in [0, 1]:

objective = """
function constrained_loss(tree, dataset::Dataset{T,L}, options) where {T,L}
    idx_pow = 3   # position of ^ in binary_operators below (1-indexed)
    n_bad = count(tree) do node
        node.degree == 2 && node.op == idx_pow &&
            any(c -> !(c.degree == 0 && c.constant && 0 <= c.val <= 1), node.r)
    end
    n_bad > 0 && return L(10_000 * n_bad)
    prediction, valid = eval_tree_array(tree, dataset.X, options)
    !valid && return L(Inf)
    return sum(i -> abs2(prediction[i] - dataset.y[i]), eachindex(prediction)) / dataset.n
end
"""
model = PySRRegressor(binary_operators=["+", "*", "^"], loss_function=objective)

The count-then-penalize shape (violations counted, multiplied by a large finite constant, returned before evaluation) is the canonical pattern: cheap structural check first, graded penalty so evolution has a direction, Inf reserved for failed numerical evaluation. Requiring a feature is the mirror image: any(n -> n.degree == 0 && !n.constant && n.feature == 2, tree) || return L(big). For template expressions, get the tree of a component via get_tree(ex) inside loss_function_expression. More traversal tools (tree_mapreduce, NodeSampler, node construction): https://ai.damtp.cam.ac.uk/dynamicexpressions/stable/examples/base_operations/

Constraints and complexity shaping

• constraints={"pow": (9, 1)}: max complexity of each argument (here: any base, exponent must be a lone constant/variable). -1 means unlimited. Strongly recommended whenever ^ is included; unconstrained exponentiation searches terribly.
• nested_constraints={"sin": {"sin": 0, "cos": 0}, "cos": {"sin": 0, "cos": 0}}: forbids nested trig. General form: how many times each inner operator may appear inside each outer one.
• complexity_of_operators={"exp": 3}: make disliked operators expensive. complexity_of_constants=2: discourage free constants. complexity_of_variables: per-feature or global cost.
• These constraints apply to every intermediate expression during evolution, not just final answers; overly tight settings silently make the target unreachable. Leave slack (e.g. want final size 30, set maxsize=35).
• maxsize counts every node (operator, constant, variable). A 7-feature linear model is already complexity ~29. The default 30 is too small for anything with many terms.
• warmup_maxsize_by=0.5 (fraction of the run over which maxsize ramps up): useful when the search dives into complex expressions early and gets stuck.
• parsimony and adaptive_parsimony_scaling are already well-tuned by default in 1.5+; old advice to set them manually is mostly obsolete.
• Known constants (pi, G, ...): just let it fit floats and recognize them afterwards, or pass the constant as an extra constant-valued feature if it must appear exactly.
• Integer-only constants: pass candidate integers as constant features and raise complexity_of_constants, or round inside a custom operator; do not expect the continuous optimizer to land on integers.

Dimensional constraints

Physical units, checked during search:

model.fit(X, y, X_units=["Constants.M_sun", "kg", "m"], y_units="kg * m / s^2")

• Uses DynamicQuantities.jl notation; "1" means explicitly dimensionless.
• Violations are softly penalized via dimensional_constraint_penalty (default 1000). Do not crank it to 1e9; a graded penalty is what lets evolution route through slightly-wrong intermediates.
• Fitted constants get wildcard units (printed [⋅] or [?]), so a lone constant can absorb any units and make an expression valid. Set dimensionless_constants_only=True to forbid that.
• Radians count as dimensionless in SI, so units cannot force a variable to appear only inside trig.

Parallelism

• Default parallelism="multithreading" is right for laptops and single nodes. Thread count is set at Julia startup: set the env var PYTHON_JULIACALL_THREADS=<n> before importing pysr (JULIA_NUM_THREADS is not the right variable under juliacall).
• Keep populations at ~2-3x the number of threads/cores so workers always have work (default populations=31 already covers typical machines).
• If the coordinating thread is saturated on many-core machines, raise ncycles_per_iteration; workers then communicate less often.
• parallelism="multiprocessing" (with procs=n) has much higher startup cost per fit but can run faster steady-state and spans multiple nodes with cluster_manager="slurm" (or run SymbolicRegression.jl natively with SlurmClusterManager.jl, see https://ai.damtp.cam.ac.uk/symbolicregression/dev/slurm/). Only worth it for very long runs. Launch the script once, on one node, and let it spawn workers; do not wrap it in srun. Custom Julia packages needed on workers go in worker_imports.
• Full reproducibility requires deterministic=True, random_state=<seed>, parallelism="serial"; parallel seeded runs are not deterministic, and even serial results can differ slightly across CPUs (use precision=64 to reduce this).

Saving, resuming, exporting

• By default, each non-temporary fit writes outputs/<run_id>/hall_of_fame.csv (updated continuously; safe to read mid-run) and checkpoint.pkl. Reload with PySRRegressor.from_file(run_directory=...). Pickles are version-locked: load with the same PySR version that wrote them. The CSV plus your construction code is the durable artifact; custom operators need their extra_sympy_mappings supplied again on reload.
• warm_start=True continues evolution from the previous call's populations on the next .fit() in the same process. Search-space parameters (operators, maxsize, expression_spec, precision, feature count/order) must stay fixed; you can change the loss or weights between warm-started fits to implement staged objectives.
• Exports: model.sympy(i), model.latex(i), model.latex_table(), model.jax(i) (returns {'callable', 'parameters'}, differentiable), model.pytorch(i) (trainable module). Custom operators need extra_jax_mappings/extra_torch_mappings for those backends. A common pattern: pick an equation, export to JAX/PyTorch, and fine-tune its constants by gradient descent on the full dataset.
• Loss printed by Julia can differ from a Python recomputation (32-bit default vs numpy 64-bit); precision=64 if it matters. Data with values beyond ~1e19 or below ~1e-19 also needs precision=64 (Float32 overflow).

Troubleshooting

Dropping to Julia

Everything above also exists natively in SymbolicRegression.jl (SRRegressor via MLJ), which is preferable when the whole pipeline is Julia or you need deep customization (custom expression types, mutation operators, per-component constraints). From Python, from pysr import jl gives the live Julia runtime: jl.seval(...) runs arbitrary code, and installed Julia packages can back custom operators and losses. The backend source is readable and small; src/Options.jl and src/CheckConstraints.jl are the usual extension points, and a dev checkout can be wired in via pysr/juliapkg.json.

Version notes

Written against PySR 2.0.0 (backend SymbolicRegression.jl 2.x). Compared with 1.5.x, 2.0 adds n-ary operators via operators={1: ["sin"], 2: ["+", "*"], 3: ["clamp"]}, guesses for seeding initial equations, custom value types through TypeSpec, automatic batching, and autodiff plugins. Defaults also changed: batching="auto", batch_size=None, annealing=True, crossover_probability=0.2, and a new mutation mix. Start from 2.0 defaults rather than copying 1.x tuning.

Deprecated API you may know or find in old examples; write the current form instead: