Axiom Swift Concurrency Ref

Swift Concurrency API Reference

Complete Swift concurrency API reference for copy-paste patterns and syntax lookup.

Complements axiom-swift-concurrency (which covers when and why to use concurrency — progressive journey, decision trees, @concurrent, isolated conformances).

Related skills: axiom-swift-concurrency (progressive journey, decision trees), axiom-synchronization (Mutex, locks), axiom-assume-isolated (assumeIsolated patterns)

Part 1: Actor Patterns

Actor Definition

actor ImageCache {
    private var cache: [URL: UIImage] = [:]

    func image(for url: URL) -> UIImage? {
        cache[url]
    }

    func store(_ image: UIImage, for url: URL) {
        cache[url] = image
    }
}

// Usage — must await across isolation boundary
let cache = ImageCache()
let image = await cache.image(for: url)

All properties and methods on an actor are isolated by default. Callers outside the actor's isolation domain must use await to access them.

Actor Isolation Rules

Every actor's stored properties and methods are isolated to that actor. Access from outside the isolation boundary requires await, which suspends the caller until the actor can process the request.

actor Counter {
    var count = 0              // Isolated — external access requires await
    let name: String           // let constants are implicitly nonisolated

    func increment() {         // Isolated — await required from outside
        count += 1
    }

    nonisolated func identity() -> String {
        name                   // OK: accessing nonisolated let
    }
}

let counter = Counter(name: "main")
await counter.increment()      // Must await across isolation boundary
let id = counter.identity()    // No await needed — nonisolated

nonisolated Keyword

Opt out of isolation for synchronous access to non-mutable state.

actor MyActor {
    let id: UUID               // let constants are implicitly nonisolated

    nonisolated var description: String {
        "Actor \(id)"          // Can only access nonisolated state
    }

    nonisolated func hash(into hasher: inout Hasher) {
        hasher.combine(id)     // Only nonisolated properties
    }
}

nonisolated methods cannot access any isolated stored properties. Use this for protocol conformances (like Hashable, CustomStringConvertible) that require synchronous access.

Actor Reentrancy

Suspension points (await) inside an actor allow other callers to interleave. State may change between any two await expressions.

actor BankAccount {
    var balance: Double = 0

    func transfer(amount: Double, to other: BankAccount) async {
        guard balance >= amount else { return }
        balance -= amount
        // REENTRANCY HAZARD: another caller could modify balance here
        // while we await the deposit on the other actor
        await other.deposit(amount)
    }

    func deposit(_ amount: Double) {
        balance += amount
    }
}

Pattern: Re-check state after every await inside an actor:

actor BankAccount {
    var balance: Double = 0

    func transfer(amount: Double, to other: BankAccount) async -> Bool {
        guard balance >= amount else { return false }
        balance -= amount

        await other.deposit(amount)

        // Re-check invariants after await if needed
        return true
    }
}

Global Actors

A global actor provides a single shared isolation domain accessible from anywhere.

@globalActor
actor MyGlobalActor {
    static let shared = MyGlobalActor()
}

@MyGlobalActor
func doWork() { /* isolated to MyGlobalActor */ }

@MyGlobalActor
class MyService {
    var state: Int = 0         // Isolated to MyGlobalActor
}

@MainActor

The built-in global actor for UI work. All UI updates must happen on @MainActor.

@MainActor
class ViewModel: ObservableObject {
    @Published var items: [Item] = []

    func loadItems() async {
        let data = await fetchFromNetwork()
        items = data           // Safe: already on MainActor
    }
}

// Annotate individual members
class MixedService {
    @MainActor var uiState: String = ""

    @MainActor
    func updateUI() {
        uiState = "Done"
    }

    func backgroundWork() async -> String {
        await heavyComputation()
    }
}

Subclass inheritance: If a class is @MainActor, all subclasses inherit that isolation.

Actor Init

Actor initializers are NOT isolated to the actor. You cannot call isolated methods from init.

actor DataManager {
    var data: [String] = []

    init() {
        // Cannot call isolated methods here
        // self.loadDefaults()  // ERROR: actor-isolated method in non-isolated init
    }

    // Use a factory method instead
    static func create() async -> DataManager {
        let manager = DataManager()
        await manager.loadDefaults()
        return manager
    }

    func loadDefaults() {
        data = ["default"]
    }
}

Actor Gotcha Table

Part 2: Sendable Patterns

Automatic Sendable Conformance

Value types are Sendable when all stored properties are Sendable.

// Structs: Sendable when all stored properties are Sendable
struct UserProfile: Sendable {
    let name: String
    let age: Int
}

// Enums: Sendable when all associated values are Sendable
enum LoadState: Sendable {
    case idle
    case loading
    case loaded(String)        // String is Sendable
    case failed(Error)         // ERROR: Error is not Sendable
}

// Fix: use a Sendable error type
enum LoadState: Sendable {
    case idle
    case loading
    case loaded(String)
    case failed(any Error & Sendable)
}

@Sendable Closures

Closures passed across isolation boundaries must be @Sendable. A @Sendable closure cannot capture mutable local state.

func runInBackground(_ work: @Sendable () -> Void) {
    Task.detached { work() }
}

// All captured values must be Sendable
var count = 0
runInBackground {
    // ERROR: capture of mutable local variable
    // count += 1
}

let snapshot = count
runInBackground {
    print(snapshot)            // OK: let binding of Sendable type
}

@unchecked Sendable

Manual guarantee of thread safety. Use only when you provide synchronization yourself.

final class ThreadSafeCache: @unchecked Sendable {
    private let lock = NSLock()
    private var storage: [String: Any] = [:]

    func get(_ key: String) -> Any? {
        lock.lock()
        defer { lock.unlock() }
        return storage[key]
    }

    func set(_ key: String, value: Any) {
        lock.lock()
        defer { lock.unlock() }
        storage[key] = value
    }
}

Requirements for @unchecked Sendable:

• Class must be final
• All mutable state must be protected by a synchronization primitive (lock, queue, Mutex)
• You are responsible for correctness — the compiler will not check

Conditional Conformance

struct Box<T> {
    let value: T
}

// Box is Sendable only when T is Sendable
extension Box: Sendable where T: Sendable {}

// Standard library uses this extensively:
// Array<Element>: Sendable where Element: Sendable
// Dictionary<Key, Value>: Sendable where Key: Sendable, Value: Sendable
// Optional<Wrapped>: Sendable where Wrapped: Sendable

sending Parameter Modifier (SE-0430)

Transfer ownership of a value across isolation boundaries. The caller gives up access.

func process(_ value: sending String) async {
    // Caller can no longer access value after this call
    await store(value)
}

// Useful for transferring non-Sendable types when caller won't use them again
func handOff(_ connection: sending NetworkConnection) async {
    await manager.accept(connection)
}

Build Settings

Control the strictness of Sendable checking in Xcode:

Sendable Gotcha Table

Part 3: Task Management

Task { }

Creates an unstructured task that inherits the current actor context and priority.

// Inherits actor context — if called from @MainActor, runs on MainActor
let task = Task {
    try await fetchData()
}

// Get the result
let result = try await task.value

// Get Result<Success, Failure>
let outcome = await task.result

Task.detached { }

Creates a task with no inherited context. Does not inherit the actor or priority.

Task.detached(priority: .background) {
    // NOT on MainActor even if created from MainActor
    await processLargeFile()
}

When to use: Background work that must NOT run on the calling actor. Prefer Task {} in most cases — Task.detached is rarely needed.

Task Cancellation

Cancellation is cooperative. Setting cancellation is a request; the task must check and respond.

let task = Task {
    for item in largeCollection {
        // Option 1: Check boolean
        if Task.isCancelled { break }

        // Option 2: Throw CancellationError
        try Task.checkCancellation()

        await process(item)
    }
}

// Request cancellation
task.cancel()

Task.sleep

Suspends the current task for a duration. Supports cancellation — throws CancellationError if cancelled during sleep.

// Duration-based (preferred)
try await Task.sleep(for: .seconds(2))
try await Task.sleep(for: .milliseconds(500))

// Nanoseconds (older API)
try await Task.sleep(nanoseconds: 2_000_000_000)

Task.yield

Voluntarily yields execution to allow other tasks to run. Use in long-running synchronous loops.

for i in 0..<1_000_000 {
    if i.isMultiple(of: 1000) {
        await Task.yield()
    }
    process(i)
}

Task Priority

Task(priority: .userInitiated) {
    await loadVisibleContent()
}

Task(priority: .background) {
    await cleanupTempFiles()
}

@TaskLocal

Task-scoped values that propagate to child tasks automatically.

enum RequestContext {
    @TaskLocal static var requestID: String?
    @TaskLocal static var userID: String?
}

// Set values for a scope
RequestContext.$requestID.withValue("req-123") {
    RequestContext.$userID.withValue("user-456") {
        // Both values available here and in child tasks
        Task {
            print(RequestContext.requestID)  // "req-123"
            print(RequestContext.userID)     // "user-456"
        }
    }
}

// Outside scope — values are nil
print(RequestContext.requestID)  // nil

Propagation rules: @TaskLocal values propagate to child tasks created with Task {}. They do NOT propagate to Task.detached {}.

Task Gotcha Table

Part 4: Structured Concurrency

async let

Run a fixed number of operations in parallel. All async let bindings are implicitly awaited when the scope exits.

async let images = fetchImages()
async let metadata = fetchMetadata()
async let config = loadConfig()

// All three run concurrently, await together
let (imgs, meta, cfg) = try await (images, metadata, config)

Semantics: If one async let throws, the others are cancelled. All must complete (or be cancelled) before the enclosing scope exits.

TaskGroup — Non-Throwing

Dynamic number of parallel tasks where none throw.

let results = await withTaskGroup(of: String.self) { group in
    for name in names {
        group.addTask {
            await fetchGreeting(for: name)
        }
    }

    var greetings: [String] = []
    for await greeting in group {
        greetings.append(greeting)
    }
    return greetings
}

TaskGroup — Throwing

Dynamic number of parallel tasks that can throw.

let images = try await withThrowingTaskGroup(of: (URL, UIImage).self) { group in
    for url in urls {
        group.addTask {
            let image = try await downloadImage(url)
            return (url, image)
        }
    }

    var results: [URL: UIImage] = [:]
    for try await (url, image) in group {
        results[url] = image
    }
    return results
}

withDiscardingTaskGroup (iOS 17+)

For when you need concurrency but don't need to collect results.

try await withThrowingDiscardingTaskGroup { group in
    for connection in connections {
        group.addTask {
            try await connection.monitor()
            // Results are discarded — useful for long-running services
        }
    }
    // Group stays alive until all tasks complete or one throws
}

TaskGroup Control

await withTaskGroup(of: Data.self) { group in
    // Add tasks conditionally
    group.addTaskUnlessCancelled {
        await fetchData()
    }

    // Cancel remaining tasks
    group.cancelAll()

    // Wait without collecting
    await group.waitForAll()

    // Iterate one at a time
    while let result = await group.next() {
        process(result)
    }
}

Task Tree Semantics

Structured concurrency forms a tree:

• Parent cancellation cancels all children — cancelling a task cancels all async let and TaskGroup children
• Child error propagates to parent — in throwing groups, a child error cancels siblings and propagates up
• All children must complete before parent returns — the scope awaits all children, even cancelled ones

// If fetchImages() throws, fetchMetadata() is automatically cancelled
async let images = fetchImages()
async let metadata = fetchMetadata()
let result = try await (images, metadata)

Structured Concurrency Gotcha Table

Part 5: Async Sequences

AsyncStream

Non-throwing stream for producing values over time.

let stream = AsyncStream<Int> { continuation in
    for i in 0..<10 {
        continuation.yield(i)
    }
    continuation.finish()
}

for await value in stream {
    print(value)
}

AsyncThrowingStream

Stream that can fail with an error.

let stream = AsyncThrowingStream<Data, Error> { continuation in
    let monitor = NetworkMonitor()
    monitor.onData = { data in
        continuation.yield(data)
    }
    monitor.onError = { error in
        continuation.finish(throwing: error)
    }
    monitor.onComplete = {
        continuation.finish()
    }

    continuation.onTermination = { @Sendable _ in
        monitor.stop()
    }

    monitor.start()
}

do {
    for try await data in stream {
        process(data)
    }
} catch {
    handleStreamError(error)
}

Continuation API

let stream = AsyncStream<Value> { continuation in
    // Emit a value
    continuation.yield(value)

    // End the stream normally
    continuation.finish()

    // Cleanup when consumer cancels or stream ends
    continuation.onTermination = { @Sendable termination in
        switch termination {
        case .cancelled:
            cleanup()
        case .finished:
            finalCleanup()
        @unknown default:
            break
        }
    }
}

// For throwing streams
let stream = AsyncThrowingStream<Value, Error> { continuation in
    continuation.yield(value)
    continuation.finish()                  // Normal end
    continuation.finish(throwing: error)   // End with error
}

Buffering Policies

Control what happens when values are produced faster than consumed.

// Keep all values (default) — memory can grow unbounded
let stream = AsyncStream<Int>(bufferingPolicy: .unbounded) { continuation in
    // ...
}

// Keep oldest N values, drop new ones when buffer is full
let stream = AsyncStream<Int>(bufferingPolicy: .bufferingOldest(100)) { continuation in
    // ...
}

// Keep newest N values, drop old ones when buffer is full
let stream = AsyncStream<Int>(bufferingPolicy: .bufferingNewest(100)) { continuation in
    // ...
}

Custom AsyncSequence

struct Counter: AsyncSequence {
    typealias Element = Int
    let limit: Int

    struct AsyncIterator: AsyncIteratorProtocol {
        var current = 0
        let limit: Int

        mutating func next() async -> Int? {
            guard current < limit else { return nil }
            defer { current += 1 }
            return current
        }
    }

    func makeAsyncIterator() -> AsyncIterator {
        AsyncIterator(limit: limit)
    }
}

// Usage
for await number in Counter(limit: 5) {
    print(number)  // 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
}

AsyncSequence Operators

Standard operators work on any AsyncSequence:

// Map
for await name in users.map(\.name) { }

// Filter
for await adult in users.filter({ $0.age >= 18 }) { }

// CompactMap
for await image in urls.compactMap({ await tryLoadImage($0) }) { }

// Prefix
for await first5 in stream.prefix(5) { }

// first(where:)
let match = await stream.first(where: { $0 > threshold })

// Contains
let hasMatch = await stream.contains(where: { $0 > threshold })

// Reduce
let sum = await numbers.reduce(0, +)

Built-in Async Sequences

// NotificationCenter
for await notification in NotificationCenter.default.notifications(named: .didUpdate) {
    handleUpdate(notification)
}

// URLSession bytes
let (bytes, response) = try await URLSession.shared.bytes(from: url)
for try await byte in bytes {
    process(byte)
}

// FileHandle bytes
for try await line in FileHandle.standardInput.bytes.lines {
    process(line)
}

Async Sequence Gotcha Table

Part 6: Isolation Patterns

@MainActor on Functions

@MainActor
func updateUI() {
    label.text = "Done"
}

// Call from async context
func doWork() async {
    let result = await computeResult()
    await updateUI()           // Hops to MainActor
}

MainActor.run

Explicitly execute a closure on the main actor from any context.

func processData() async {
    let result = await heavyComputation()

    await MainActor.run {
        self.label.text = result
        self.progressView.isHidden = true
    }
}

MainActor.assumeIsolated (iOS 17+)

Assert that code is already running on the main actor. Crashes at runtime if the assertion is false.

func legacyCallback() {
    // We KNOW this is called on main thread (UIKit guarantee)
    MainActor.assumeIsolated {
        self.viewModel.update()    // Access @MainActor state
    }
}

See axiom-assume-isolated for comprehensive patterns.

nonisolated

Opt out of the enclosing actor's isolation.

@MainActor
class ViewModel {
    let id: UUID                           // Implicitly nonisolated (let)

    nonisolated var analyticsID: String {   // Explicitly nonisolated
        id.uuidString
    }

    var items: [Item] = []                 // Isolated to MainActor
}

nonisolated(unsafe)

Compiler escape hatch. Tells the compiler to treat a property as if it's not isolated, without any safety guarantees.

// Use only when you have external guarantees of thread safety
nonisolated(unsafe) var legacyState: Int = 0

// Common for global constants that the compiler can't verify
nonisolated(unsafe) let formatter: DateFormatter = {
    let f = DateFormatter()
    f.dateStyle = .medium
    return f
}()

Warning: nonisolated(unsafe) provides zero runtime protection. Data races will not be caught. Use only as a last resort for bridging legacy code.

@preconcurrency

Suppress concurrency warnings for pre-concurrency APIs during migration.

// Suppress warnings for entire module
@preconcurrency import MyLegacyFramework

// Suppress for specific protocol conformance
class MyDelegate: @preconcurrency SomeLegacyDelegate {
    func delegateCallback() {
        // No Sendable warnings for this conformance
    }
}

#isolation (Swift 5.9+)

Capture the caller's isolation context so a function runs on whatever actor the caller is on.

func doWork(isolation: isolated (any Actor)? = #isolation) async {
    // Runs on caller's actor — no hop if caller is already isolated
    performWork()
}

// Called from @MainActor — runs on MainActor
@MainActor
func setup() async {
    await doWork()             // doWork runs on MainActor
}

// Called from custom actor — runs on that actor
actor MyActor {
    func run() async {
        await doWork()         // doWork runs on MyActor
    }
}

Isolation Gotcha Table

Part 7: Continuations

Bridge callback-based APIs to async/await.

withCheckedContinuation

Non-throwing bridge.

func currentLocation() async -> CLLocation {
    await withCheckedContinuation { continuation in
        locationManager.requestLocation { location in
            continuation.resume(returning: location)
        }
    }
}

withCheckedThrowingContinuation

Throwing bridge.

func fetchUser(id: String) async throws -> User {
    try await withCheckedThrowingContinuation { continuation in
        api.fetchUser(id: id) { result in
            switch result {
            case .success(let user):
                continuation.resume(returning: user)
            case .failure(let error):
                continuation.resume(throwing: error)
            }
        }
    }
}

Continuation Resume Methods

// Return a value
continuation.resume(returning: value)

// Throw an error
continuation.resume(throwing: error)

// From a Result type
continuation.resume(with: result)    // Result<T, Error>

Resume-Exactly-Once Rule

A continuation MUST be resumed exactly once:

• Resuming twice crashes with "Continuation already resumed" (checked) or undefined behavior (unsafe)
• Never resuming causes the awaiting task to hang forever — a silent leak

// DANGEROUS: callback might not be called
func riskyBridge() async throws -> Data {
    try await withCheckedThrowingContinuation { continuation in
        api.fetch { data, error in
            if let error {
                continuation.resume(throwing: error)
                return
            }
            if let data {
                continuation.resume(returning: data)
                return
            }
            // BUG: if both are nil, continuation is never resumed
            // Fix: add a fallback
            continuation.resume(throwing: BridgeError.noResponse)
        }
    }
}

Bridging Delegates

class LocationBridge: NSObject, CLLocationManagerDelegate {
    private var continuation: CheckedContinuation<CLLocation, Error>?
    private let manager = CLLocationManager()

    func requestLocation() async throws -> CLLocation {
        try await withCheckedThrowingContinuation { continuation in
            self.continuation = continuation
            manager.delegate = self
            manager.requestLocation()
        }
    }

    func locationManager(_ manager: CLLocationManager, didUpdateLocations locations: [CLLocation]) {
        continuation?.resume(returning: locations[0])
        continuation = nil     // Prevent double resume
    }

    func locationManager(_ manager: CLLocationManager, didFailWithError error: Error) {
        continuation?.resume(throwing: error)
        continuation = nil
    }
}

Unsafe Continuations

Skip runtime checks for performance. Same API as checked, but misuse causes undefined behavior instead of a diagnostic crash.

func fastBridge() async -> Data {
    await withUnsafeContinuation { continuation in
        // No runtime check for double-resume or missing resume
        fastCallback { data in
            continuation.resume(returning: data)
        }
    }
}

Use checked continuations during development, switch to unsafe only after thorough testing and when profiling shows the check is a bottleneck.

Continuation Gotcha Table

Part 8: Migration Patterns

Common migrations from GCD and completion handlers to Swift concurrency.

DispatchQueue to Actor

// BEFORE: DispatchQueue for thread safety
class ImageCache {
    private let queue = DispatchQueue(label: "cache", attributes: .concurrent)
    private var cache: [URL: UIImage] = [:]

    func get(_ url: URL, completion: @escaping (UIImage?) -> Void) {
        queue.async { completion(self.cache[url]) }
    }

    func set(_ url: URL, image: UIImage) {
        queue.async(flags: .barrier) { self.cache[url] = image }
    }
}

// AFTER: Actor
actor ImageCache {
    private var cache: [URL: UIImage] = [:]

    func get(_ url: URL) -> UIImage? {
        cache[url]
    }

    func set(_ url: URL, image: UIImage) {
        cache[url] = image
    }
}

DispatchGroup to TaskGroup

// BEFORE: DispatchGroup
let group = DispatchGroup()
var results: [Data] = []
for url in urls {
    group.enter()
    fetch(url) { data in
        results.append(data)
        group.leave()
    }
}
group.notify(queue: .main) { use(results) }

// AFTER: TaskGroup
let results = await withTaskGroup(of: Data.self) { group in
    for url in urls {
        group.addTask { await fetch(url) }
    }
    var collected: [Data] = []
    for await data in group {
        collected.append(data)
    }
    return collected
}
use(results)

Completion Handler to async

// BEFORE
func fetchData(completion: @escaping (Result<Data, Error>) -> Void) {
    URLSession.shared.dataTask(with: url) { data, _, error in
        if let error { completion(.failure(error)); return }
        guard let data else { completion(.failure(FetchError.noData)); return }
        completion(.success(data))
    }.resume()
}

// AFTER
func fetchData() async throws -> Data {
    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
    return data
}

@objc Delegates with @MainActor

@MainActor
class ViewController: UIViewController, UITableViewDelegate {
    // @objc delegate methods inherit @MainActor isolation from the class
    func tableView(_ tableView: UITableView, didSelectRowAt indexPath: IndexPath) {
        // Already on MainActor — safe to update UI
        updateSelection(indexPath)
    }
}

NotificationCenter to AsyncSequence

// BEFORE
let observer = NotificationCenter.default.addObserver(
    forName: .didUpdate, object: nil, queue: .main
) { notification in
    handleUpdate(notification)
}
// Must remove observer in deinit

// AFTER
let task = Task {
    for await notification in NotificationCenter.default.notifications(named: .didUpdate) {
        await handleUpdate(notification)
    }
}
// Cancel task in deinit — no manual observer removal needed

Timer to AsyncSequence

// BEFORE
let timer = Timer.scheduledTimer(withTimeInterval: 1.0, repeats: true) { _ in
    updateUI()
}
// Must invalidate in deinit

// AFTER
let task = Task {
    while !Task.isCancelled {
        await updateUI()
        try? await Task.sleep(for: .seconds(1))
    }
}
// Cancel task in deinit

DispatchSemaphore to Actor

// BEFORE: Semaphore to limit concurrent operations
let semaphore = DispatchSemaphore(value: 3)
for url in urls {
    DispatchQueue.global().async {
        semaphore.wait()
        defer { semaphore.signal() }
        download(url)
    }
}

// AFTER: TaskGroup with limited concurrency
await withTaskGroup(of: Void.self) { group in
    var inFlight = 0
    for url in urls {
        if inFlight >= 3 {
            await group.next()   // Wait for one to finish
            inFlight -= 1
        }
        group.addTask { await download(url) }
        inFlight += 1
    }
    await group.waitForAll()
}

Migration Gotcha Table

API Quick Reference

Resources

WWDC: 2021-10132, 2021-10134, 2022-110350, 2025-268

Docs: /swift/concurrency, /swift/actor, /swift/sendable, /swift/taskgroup

Skills: swift-concurrency, assume-isolated, synchronization, concurrency-profiling