Loom Terraform

Terraform / OpenTofu

Overview

Terraform/OpenTofu infrastructure: module design, state/backends, multi-environment strategy, provider config, refactoring/import. Prefer tofu over terraform — OpenTofu is the Linux Foundation fork, config-compatible, and has capabilities OSS Terraform lacks (client-side state encryption). Command mapping table is at the end.

The single highest-value section is Expert Practices below — the anti-patterns/gotchas there are where naive-but-working configs go wrong.

Module & Configuration Design

Canonical layout — shared modules/, one root module per environment, lock file committed:

terraform/
├── modules/{vpc,eks,rds}/         # each: main.tf variables.tf outputs.tf versions.tf
├── environments/{dev,staging,prod}/  # each: main.tf backend.tf terraform.tfvars .terraform.lock.hcl
└── .terraform.lock.hcl

Principles: reusable modules with typed, validated, described inputs; providers pinned in required_providers; remote state with locking; locals for computed/DRY values; documented outputs; lifecycle rules where deletion/replacement risk exists.

Variable validation — validate at the boundary; contains() for enums, length/regex for shape:

variable "environment" {
  type = string
  validation {
    condition     = contains(["dev", "staging", "prod"], var.environment)
    error_message = "Environment must be dev, staging, or prod."
  }
}

Module composition — wire flat modules via input/output, never nest deep (see Anti-Patterns). Version external modules with ~>; pin internal git modules by tag ref=:

module "vpc" { source = "terraform-aws-modules/vpc/aws", version = "~> 5.0" }
module "internal" { source = "git::https://github.com/org/tf-modules.git//vpc?ref=v1.2.3" }

State & Backends

S3 with native locking (no DynamoDB):

terraform {
  backend "s3" {
    bucket       = "myorg-terraform-state"
    key          = "prod/eks/terraform.tfstate"
    region       = "us-west-2"
    encrypt      = true
    kms_key_id   = "arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:key/..."
    use_lockfile = true   # native S3 conditional-write lock; no DynamoDB table/IAM
  }
}

• use_lockfile = true locks via an S3 conditional PutObject of <key>.tflock. In Terraform, dynamodb_table locking is deprecated (future removal); migrate by keeping BOTH until all CI/operators cut over, then drop dynamodb_table. OpenTofu has NOT deprecated DynamoDB locking — this is Terraform-only.
• backend blocks cannot reference var.*/local.*/data.* — evaluated before variables exist; any reference errors at init. Use partial configuration: omit dynamic args, supply via -backend-config=KEY=VALUE or a .tfbackend file.
• NEVER pass credentials via -backend-config (persisted into .terraform/ and plan files) or hardcode them — supply backend creds only through env vars (AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID, etc.).
• lifecycle is a resource meta-argument — invalid inside a backend block. Protect the state bucket via prevent_destroy on its own aws_s3_bucket resource + versioning/object-lock.

tofu init -backend-config="bucket=$TF_STATE_BUCKET" -backend-config="key=prod/app.tfstate"

State operations — prefer the version-controlled block form (moved/removed/import, see Idioms) over these imperative commands:

State migration — configure new backend, then tofu init -migrate-state (add -backend-config=... for target). Always encrypt remote state; never commit state files.

Multi-Environment

Strategy 1 (RECOMMENDED): directory-per-env. Each env is a separate root module with its OWN backend bucket and IAM role — switching envs requires a deliberate cd, so a dev shell physically cannot target prod. Right choice for dev/staging/prod.

Strategy 2: workspaces — NOT environment isolation. Official docs: workspaces "are not appropriate for system decomposition or deployments requiring separate credentials and access controls." All workspaces share ONE backend, ONE auth context, ONE provider config — no prod/dev boundary, and a mistyped tofu workspace select prod && tofu apply hits prod with no config guard. Use ONLY for short-lived variants within a single access boundary (PR-preview/ephemeral test envs).

Strategy 3: tfvars files — one root module, per-env var files. Flexible but shares backend/creds like workspaces unless combined with Strategy 1:

tofu apply -var-file="environments/prod.tfvars"

Security

Compact, non-obvious flags (the surrounding IAM/SG HCL is standard):

# KMS: rotation + generous deletion window
resource "aws_kms_key" "data" {
  enable_key_rotation     = true
  deletion_window_in_days = 30
}

# S3 SSE-KMS with bucket keys (cuts KMS API cost ~99% on high-volume buckets)
resource "aws_s3_bucket_server_side_encryption_configuration" "data" {
  bucket = aws_s3_bucket.data.id
  rule {
    apply_server_side_encryption_by_default { kms_master_key_id = aws_kms_key.data.arn, sse_algorithm = "aws:kms" }
    bucket_key_enabled = true
  }
}

# RDS encryption is create-time only — cannot be toggled on an existing instance
resource "aws_db_instance" "main" { storage_encrypted = true, kms_key_id = aws_kms_key.data.arn }

• Define SG rules as separate aws_security_group_rule (or aws_vpc_security_group_ingress_rule) resources, not inline ingress/egress blocks, when two SGs reference each other — inline blocks force a dependency cycle; separate rule resources break it.
• Store credentials in Secrets Manager/SSM and pass only ARNs; mark any secret-bearing output sensitive = true (but see Security below — that does NOT keep it out of state).
• IAM: scope Action/Resource to exact ARNs; avoid "*" outside the KMS root key policy.

Providers

terraform {
  # Floor = primitives this config uses. 1.5 import/check blocks; 1.9 cross-object validation.
  # Raise: >=1.10 ephemeral values; >=1.11 write-only args + native S3 locking.
  # OpenTofu: >=1.7 state encryption; >=1.10 S3 locking.
  required_version = ">= 1.9.0"
  required_providers {
    aws        = { source = "hashicorp/aws", version = "~> 5.0" }   # 5.x, not 6.0
    kubernetes = { source = "hashicorp/kubernetes", version = "~> 2.23" }
  }
}

provider "aws" {
  region       = var.region
  default_tags { tags = { Environment = var.environment, ManagedBy = "terraform" } }
}

# Aliases for multi-region/account — resources/modules select via `provider =` / `providers = {}`
provider "aws" { alias = "replica", region = "us-east-1" }
resource "aws_s3_bucket" "replica" { provider = aws.replica, bucket = "${var.name}-replica" }

default_tags auto-applies to every taggable resource — no per-resource merge() needed for org-wide tags.

Core Patterns

Dynamic blocks — generate repeatable nested blocks from a collection:

dynamic "ingress" {
  for_each = var.ingress_rules
  content {
    from_port = ingress.value.from_port
    to_port   = ingress.value.to_port
    protocol  = ingress.value.protocol
    cidr_blocks = ingress.value.cidr_blocks
  }
}

for expressions — build maps/lists; filter with if:

subnet_by_az   = { for s in aws_subnet.private : s.availability_zone => s.id }
prod_instances = { for k, v in var.instances : k => v if v.environment == "production" }

count vs for_each, lifecycle (create_before_destroy/prevent_destroy/ignore_changes), and depends_on are covered in depth under Expert Practices — read the Gotchas there before using any of them.

Troubleshooting

Regenerate (never just delete) a corrupt lock file across all target platforms — deleting it discards validated checksum pins and can pull a different version next init:

tofu providers lock -platform=linux_amd64 -platform=darwin_arm64 -platform=windows_amd64

Sensitive data in state: sensitive = true only redacts UI output — the value is still plaintext in state. Real fixes: write-only args (TF ≥1.11) + ephemeral resources (≥1.10) never persist; OpenTofu ≥1.7 encryption block; or external store passing only ARNs. See Expert Practices → Security.

Testing & Validation

tofu fmt -recursive      # format (run before every commit)
tofu validate            # config validity (no cloud calls)
tfsec .                  # or trivy/checkov — static security scan
infracost breakdown --path .   # cost estimate

Plan review checklist: all changes expected · no unintended -/+ (destroy/replace) · sensitive values not in outputs · encryption enabled · IAM least-privilege · SGs restrictive · tags present.

Expert Practices: Idioms, Anti-Patterns & Gotchas

High-signal guidance from the official docs. The why matters as much as the rule.

Anti-Patterns

Never put a provider block in a reusable child module. Docs: "A module intended to be called by one or more other modules must not contain any provider blocks," and "a module with its own provider configurations is not compatible with for_each, count, or depends_on" on the call. Mechanism: a provider config and the resources it manages must be destroyed together, but the graph cannot guarantee that ordering once the call is multiplied/ordered. Declare provider blocks only in root modules; pass aliased providers explicitly via providers. Aliased providers are NEVER inherited — forgetting to pass one silently falls back to the default (wrong region/account). Child modules declare required_providers for version constraints only — no provider block, no backend block.

provider "aws" { alias = "usw2", region = "us-west-2" }
module "app" {
  source    = "./modules/app"
  providers = { aws = aws.usw2 }
  for_each  = var.environments   # works only because the module has no provider block
}

Keep module composition flat (single level of child modules). Modules take inputs, emit outputs, and know nothing about where state lives. Compose flat at the root and wire via input/output rather than nesting (root → A → B → C), which obscures dependency flow, complicates provider passing, and makes refactoring hazardous.

Idioms

Don't repeat the resource type in the name label. aws_security_group.app already carries the type; aws_security_group.app_security_group says the noun twice. Short role-descriptive nouns, underscores not dashes (aws_instance.web, not aws_instance.ec2-web-server). The this/main singleton convention is a community idiom, NOT in the official style guide.

Use moved/removed/import blocks, not the imperative CLI. state mv/import/taint are imperative: every operator must run them, they aren't version-controlled or reproducible. Block forms are validated, reviewable in PRs, and run in CI with no manual steps.

• moved (≥1.1) encodes renames. Never delete a published moved block — it makes configs referencing the old address plan a delete instead of a move. Chain renames across successive moves; retain all historical blocks.
• removed (≥1.7) with lifecycle { destroy = false } drops a resource from management WITHOUT destroying real infra.
• import (≥1.5) blocks make import plannable; pair with -generate-config-out=FILE to auto-generate HCL for brownfield adoption. OpenTofu 1.7+ adds for_each for bulk imports. Unlike moved, import blocks may be deleted after they succeed.

moved   { from = aws_instance.server,    to = aws_instance.app_server }     # chain, never prune
removed { from = aws_db_instance.legacy, lifecycle { destroy = false } }    # keep real infra
import  { to   = aws_instance.app,       id = "i-1234567890abcdef0" }        # then -generate-config-out

Commit .terraform.lock.hcl, pre-populate multi-platform checksums. init records checksums only for the platform it ran on, so a teammate/CI on another OS/arch hits "no matching checksum". The lock pins PROVIDERS only — module pinning lives in the version constraint. A CI init -upgrade re-resolves from constraints and overwrites lock selections, silently unpinning.

tofu providers lock -platform=linux_amd64 -platform=darwin_amd64 \
                    -platform=darwin_arm64 -platform=windows_amd64

Gotchas

count index shift silently recreates the WRONG resources — prefer for_each. Removing a non-tail element of a count list reindexes everything after it: removing [1] of three makes old-[2] become [1], so Terraform destroys & recreates the resource you never touched — a data-loss footgun for RDS/EBS/subnets. Key for_each over a map/set by STABLE identity. Caveats: toset() on a list silently dedupes duplicates (dropping instances), and a moved block migrates existing count-indexed state to for_each keys without recreation.

# BAD — count: removing var.names[1] reindexes [2]→[1], recreating a survivor
resource "aws_instance" "app" { count = length(var.names), ami = var.ami }
# GOOD — for_each: address keyed by stable name, deletes only the removed key
resource "aws_instance" "app" { for_each = toset(var.names), ami = var.ami, tags = { Name = each.value } }

for_each keys must be known at plan time and non-sensitive. Keys appear in plan UI, so (1) sensitive values are categorically forbidden as for_each args, and (2) a computed/"known after apply" attribute (generated ID/ARN/endpoint) as a key is a plan-time error. Impure functions (uuid(), timestamp(), bcrypt()) are disallowed too. Derive a non-sensitive, statically-known key set with a for expression first.

Data sources are read at plan time and return last-known values. A data lookup reflects state as of the plan, not the live apply moment. If any argument (or an added depends_on) references a "known after apply" value, the read is DEFERRED to apply and the plan shows "(known after apply)", making plan review meaningless. Keep data-source args static; to use an attribute of a resource you're creating, reference that resource's attribute directly rather than re-looking it up via a data source.

create_before_destroy is graph-wide and irreversible. Terraform "propagates and applies create_before_destroy behavior to all resource dependencies" and stores it in state; you cannot override it to false on a dependency (that would imply a cycle). One leaf change can silently alter replacement ordering of upstream infra. Two more traps: with CBD true, destroy-time provisioners do NOT run (drain/deregister logic skipped); and unique-name resources (SGs, RDS, IAM, S3) collide during the create-then-destroy overlap — use name_prefix or a random_id/random_pet suffix.

resource "aws_security_group" "app" {
  name_prefix = "${var.name}-app-"   # unique per replacement; avoids overlap collision
  lifecycle { create_before_destroy = true }
}

prevent_destroy is bypassed when you delete the resource block. It blocks destroy plans only WHILE the block exists; Terraform does not store the rule in state (unlike create_before_destroy). Deleting the block makes the next apply plan destruction with no guard. To stop managing a resource without destroying it, use a removed block with destroy = false.

Performance

Prefer implicit attribute references over depends_on. Referencing an attribute (aws_iam_instance_profile.app.name) gives Terraform the exact dependency scope and full parallelism. depends_on is blunt: it plans conservatively, marks more values "(known after apply)", and "can cause Terraform to create more conservative plans that replace more resources than necessary." Worst on a module call — it serializes ALL resources inside. Reserve for hidden side effects with no referenceable attribute (e.g. an IAM policy that must propagate before bootstrap).

Security

sensitive = true does NOT protect state. Docs: "Terraform stores values with the sensitive argument in both state and plan files, and anyone who can access those files can access your sensitive values." terraform output -json/-raw print them plaintext regardless. Only mechanisms that keep a secret out of state:

• Write-only arguments (TF ≥1.11, provider-specific, e.g. password_wo + password_wo_version) — provider consumes them, never persisted.
• Ephemeral resources/values (≥1.10) — fetched per-phase, discarded before state/plan are written.

For older versions, keep the secret in an external store and pass only ARNs/references.

ephemeral "aws_secretsmanager_secret_version" "db" { secret_id = aws_secretsmanager_secret.db.id }
resource "aws_db_instance" "main" {
  password_wo         = ephemeral.aws_secretsmanager_secret_version.db.secret_string
  password_wo_version = 1   # increment to rotate
}

Avoid terraform_remote_state across team boundaries. It exposes only outputs, but the consumer needs read access to the ENTIRE state snapshot to get them — "any user or server which has enough access to read the root module output values will also always have access to the full state snapshot data," often including secrets. Renaming an output breaks every consumer. Publish explicitly to a neutral store (SSM Parameter Store, Consul, DNS) so access controls differ; HCP Terraform's tfe_outputs avoids full-state access. Within one team's own repo, terraform_remote_state is fine.

resource "aws_ssm_parameter" "vpc_id" { name = "/shared/networking/vpc-id", type = "String", value = aws_vpc.main.id }
data "aws_ssm_parameter" "vpc_id"     { name = "/shared/networking/vpc-id" }   # consumer needs no state access

Validation (Design Pattern)

Layered validation, each tier with a distinct scope and failure behavior:

• Variable validation — checks raw input shape/range. Since 1.9 it may reference other objects, but CANNOT reach a data source / provider-returned attribute. Halts.
• precondition/postcondition (≥1.2, inside lifecycle) — run with resolved values: preconditions assert cross-resource invariants before create; postconditions validate provider-returned attributes after create. Both HALT on failure.
• check blocks (≥1.5) — run at the END of plan/apply and report failures as WARNINGS without halting. Use for health probes, cert-expiry, compliance/drift that should surface but not gate a deploy; can embed a scoped data source.

data "aws_ami" "app" {
  lifecycle {
    postcondition {                                  # blocking invariant
      condition     = self.architecture == "x86_64"
      error_message = "AMI ${self.id} is ${self.architecture}; only x86_64 supported."
    }
  }
}
check "api_health" {                                 # non-blocking observation
  data "http" "endpoint" { url = "https://${aws_lb.app.dns_name}/health" }
  assert {
    condition     = data.http.endpoint.status_code == 200
    error_message = "Health endpoint returned ${data.http.endpoint.status_code}"
  }
}

Currency

OpenTofu offers client-side state encryption; OSS Terraform does not. OpenTofu 1.7+ adds an encryption block inside terraform {} encrypting state and plan (AES-GCM, PBKDF2 passphrase or KMS key provider) before they leave the process — protecting secrets at rest independent of backend encryption (S3 SSE still leaves state readable to anyone with bucket access). Tradeoff: tools that parse raw state (remote-state data sources, drift comparison) don't work against encrypted state — plan for key distribution. Use a KMS key provider (not a static passphrase) in production for rotation/audit.

terraform {
  encryption {
    key_provider "aws_kms" "main" { kms_key_id = var.kms_key_id, region = var.region }
    method "aes_gcm" "default"    { keys = key_provider.aws_kms.main }
    state { method = method.aes_gcm.default }
    plan  { method = method.aes_gcm.default }
  }
}

Verification Checklist

• tofu fmt -recursive clean and tofu validate passes
• .terraform.lock.hcl committed with all target platforms locked (tofu providers lock -platform=...)
• Provider versions pinned with ~>; required_version floor matches primitives used
• No provider/backend block inside any child module; aliased providers passed explicitly
• Resource collections use for_each over stable keys (not count) where mid-list removal is possible
• Renames/removals/imports done via moved/removed/import blocks, not imperative CLI
• Remote state encrypted + locked; no state files committed; no creds in -backend-config
• Secrets kept out of state (write-only args / ephemeral / external store) — not just sensitive = true
• plan reviewed: no unexpected destroy/replace; prevent_destroy on stateful resources
• Env isolation via directory-per-env (workspaces only for ephemeral same-boundary variants)

OpenTofu vs Terraform Commands

tofu is preferred; substitute terraform where OpenTofu is unavailable. Same subcommands throughout (init, plan, apply, destroy, fmt, validate, state, import, output, workspace).

Example: AWS VPC Module (for_each idiom)

Demonstrates the stable-address pattern — subnets keyed by AZ so removing one AZ destroys only its subnet, never reindexing survivors (which count would):

terraform {
  required_version = ">= 1.9.0"
  required_providers { aws = { source = "hashicorp/aws", version = "~> 5.0" } }
}

variable "name"       { type = string }
variable "cidr_block" { type = string, default = "10.0.0.0/16" }
variable "availability_zones" { type = list(string) }

resource "aws_vpc" "main" {
  cidr_block           = var.cidr_block
  enable_dns_hostnames = true
  enable_dns_support   = true
  tags                 = { Name = "${var.name}-vpc" }
}

# CIDR index derived from a sorted-list lookup so it stays stable per AZ
locals { az_index = { for i, az in sort(var.availability_zones) : az => i } }

resource "aws_subnet" "public" {
  for_each                = toset(var.availability_zones)
  vpc_id                  = aws_vpc.main.id
  cidr_block              = cidrsubnet(var.cidr_block, 4, local.az_index[each.key])
  availability_zone       = each.key
  map_public_ip_on_launch = true
  tags                    = { Name = "${var.name}-public-${each.key}", Tier = "public" }
}

resource "aws_subnet" "private" {
  for_each          = toset(var.availability_zones)
  vpc_id            = aws_vpc.main.id
  cidr_block        = cidrsubnet(var.cidr_block, 4, local.az_index[each.key] + length(var.availability_zones))
  availability_zone = each.key
  tags              = { Name = "${var.name}-private-${each.key}", Tier = "private" }
}

output "private_subnet_ids" {
  value = [for s in aws_subnet.private : s.id]   # for_each map -> list
}

Root module wiring (backend + external module + local module):

terraform {
  required_version = ">= 1.9.0"
  backend "s3" {
    bucket = "my-terraform-state", key = "eks/terraform.tfstate"
    region = "us-west-2", encrypt = true, use_lockfile = true
  }
}
module "vpc" { source = "./modules/vpc", name = var.name, availability_zones = var.azs }
module "eks" {
  source          = "terraform-aws-modules/eks/aws"
  version         = "~> 19.0"
  cluster_name    = var.name
  cluster_version = "1.28"
  vpc_id          = module.vpc.vpc_id
  subnet_ids      = module.vpc.private_subnet_ids
}