Behavioral Neuroscience
Behavioral neuroscience (also called biological psychology or psychobiology) studies the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. The central premise is that every psychological phenomenon -- perception, memory, emotion, decision-making, personality, psychopathology -- has a neural basis. This does not mean psychology is reducible to neuroscience; rather, understanding the brain constrains and enriches psychological theory. The field draws on neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neurochemistry, genetics, and pharmacology.
Agent affinity: james (mind-body relationship, pragmatic integration of biological and psychological levels), kahneman (neural basis of dual-process cognition)
Concept IDs: psych-brain-structure, psych-stress-response, psych-theories-of-emotion, psych-learning-theory
Behavioral Neuroscience at a Glance
| # |
Domain |
Core Question |
Key Methods |
| 1 |
Brain structure |
What does each brain region do? |
Lesion studies, neuroimaging (fMRI, PET, CT), electrical stimulation |
| 2 |
Neurotransmitters |
How do chemical messengers modulate behavior? |
Pharmacological manipulation, receptor binding, microdialysis |
| 3 |
Neural plasticity |
How does the brain change with experience? |
Long-term potentiation, neurogenesis studies, critical period research |
| 4 |
Psychopharmacology |
How do drugs alter brain function and behavior? |
Clinical trials, dose-response studies, receptor affinity profiling |
Domain 1 -- Brain Structure and Function
Organizational principles
The brain is organized both hierarchically (brainstem handles basic survival, cortex handles higher cognition) and laterally (left hemisphere is typically dominant for language, right for spatial processing and emotional prosody). Damage at any level produces specific, predictable deficits.
Major structures
Cerebral cortex. The wrinkled outer layer, ~2-4 mm thick, containing roughly 16 billion neurons. Divided into four lobes:
| Lobe |
Location |
Primary functions |
Key areas |
| Frontal |
Front |
Planning, decision-making, voluntary movement, personality, working memory |
Primary motor cortex (M1), prefrontal cortex (PFC), Broca's area |
| Parietal |
Top-back |
Somatosensory processing, spatial awareness, attention |
Primary somatosensory cortex (S1), posterior parietal cortex |
| Temporal |
Sides |
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, object recognition |
Primary auditory cortex (A1), Wernicke's area, fusiform face area |
| Occipital |
Back |
Visual processing |
Primary visual cortex (V1), V2-V5 visual association areas |
Prefrontal cortex (PFC). The most anterior part of the frontal lobe. Critical for executive functions: planning, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and social behavior. The case of Phineas Gage (1848) -- an iron rod through his left frontal lobe transformed a responsible foreman into an impulsive, socially inappropriate man -- provided early evidence for PFC's role in personality and self-regulation.
Limbic system. A circuit of interconnected structures deep within the brain:
- Amygdala -- fear conditioning, threat detection, emotional memory. Lesions produce Kluver-Bucy syndrome (absence of fear, oral exploration of objects). LeDoux (1996) identified two pathways: a fast "low road" (thalamus to amygdala, rapid threat response) and a slow "high road" (thalamus to cortex to amygdala, deliberate evaluation).
- Hippocampus -- memory consolidation (transfer from short-term to long-term memory), spatial navigation. Patient H.M.'s bilateral hippocampal removal produced severe anterograde amnesia. London taxi drivers show enlarged posterior hippocampi (Maguire et al., 2000).
- Hypothalamus -- homeostatic regulation: hunger, thirst, temperature, circadian rhythms, hormonal control via the pituitary gland. The four F's: feeding, fighting, fleeing, and mating.
Basal ganglia. Subcortical nuclei (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus) involved in motor control, procedural learning, and reward processing. Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra causes Parkinson's disease (tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia).
Cerebellum. "Little brain" at the posterior base. Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, motor learning, and (increasingly recognized) cognitive functions including timing, prediction, and language processing. Contains more neurons than the rest of the brain combined.
Brainstem. Midbrain, pons, and medulla. Controls vital functions: breathing, heart rate, sleep-wake cycles, arousal. The reticular activating system (RAS) in the brainstem regulates overall cortical arousal.
Lateralization
- Left hemisphere -- language production (Broca's area) and comprehension (Wernicke's area) in ~95% of right-handers, sequential processing, analytical reasoning
- Right hemisphere -- spatial processing, face recognition, emotional prosody, holistic processing, musical perception
Split-brain studies (Sperry, 1968; Gazzaniga, 1967) in patients with severed corpus callosum revealed that the two hemispheres can operate independently, each with its own perceptions, memories, and even personality traits.
Domain 2 -- Neurotransmitter Systems
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released at synapses. They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, producing excitatory or inhibitory effects. The same neurotransmitter can have different effects at different receptor subtypes.
Major neurotransmitter systems
| Neurotransmitter |
Primary role |
Imbalance associated with |
Key pathways |
| Dopamine |
Reward, motivation, motor control, working memory |
Schizophrenia (excess in mesolimbic), Parkinson's (deficit in nigrostriatal), addiction |
Mesolimbic (reward), mesocortical (cognition), nigrostriatal (motor) |
| Serotonin (5-HT) |
Mood regulation, sleep, appetite, impulse control |
Depression, anxiety, OCD |
Raphe nuclei to widespread cortical and limbic targets |
| Norepinephrine (NE) |
Arousal, attention, fight-or-flight, mood |
Depression (deficit), PTSD (excess), ADHD |
Locus coeruleus to cortex, limbic system, brainstem |
| GABA |
Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming |
Anxiety (deficit), epilepsy (deficit) |
Widespread inhibitory interneurons throughout the brain |
| Glutamate |
Primary excitatory neurotransmitter, learning, memory |
Excitotoxicity in stroke, neurodegeneration |
Widespread excitatory projections, NMDA receptors critical for LTP |
| Acetylcholine (ACh) |
Attention, memory, muscle contraction |
Alzheimer's disease (deficit in basal forebrain cholinergic system) |
Basal forebrain to cortex, neuromuscular junction |
Synaptic transmission
The sequence: (1) action potential reaches axon terminal, (2) calcium influx triggers vesicle fusion, (3) neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft, (4) binds postsynaptic receptors, (5) produces excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potential, (6) terminated by reuptake, enzymatic degradation, or diffusion.
Drugs alter behavior by modifying this process: agonists enhance transmission (by mimicking, increasing release, or blocking reuptake), antagonists reduce it (by blocking receptors or inhibiting release).
Domain 3 -- Neural Plasticity
The brain is not hard-wired. It changes structurally and functionally in response to experience, injury, and development. Plasticity is the biological basis of learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.
Synaptic plasticity
Long-term potentiation (LTP). Bliss and Lomo (1973) discovered that brief high-frequency stimulation of a neural pathway produces a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength. LTP at hippocampal synapses requires NMDA receptor activation and is widely regarded as a cellular mechanism of learning and memory. The key properties -- input specificity, associativity, and cooperativity -- map onto the properties of associative learning.
Long-term depression (LTD). The complementary process: low-frequency stimulation produces a long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength. LTD enables forgetting and the weakening of unused connections, preventing saturation.
Neurogenesis
New neurons are generated in the adult brain, primarily in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone (Eriksson et al., 1998). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is enhanced by exercise, enriched environments, and learning, and suppressed by stress and depression. Its functional significance is debated but likely involves pattern separation in memory.
Critical periods
Hubel and Wiesel (1962) showed that monocular deprivation during a critical period in kitten development permanently altered visual cortex organization. The deprived eye lost cortical territory to the open eye (ocular dominance plasticity). Critical periods exist for language acquisition, binocular vision, and emotional attachment. After the critical period closes, the same experience produces much weaker plastic change.
Experience-dependent plasticity
The brain's structure reflects its owner's experience:
- Musicians show enlarged auditory cortex and motor cortex areas corresponding to their instrument (Schlaug et al., 1995)
- London taxi drivers show enlarged posterior hippocampi proportional to years of navigating (Maguire et al., 2000)
- Braille readers show expansion of somatosensory cortex for the reading finger (Pascual-Leone & Torres, 1993)
- Phantom limb pain reflects cortical reorganization after amputation (Ramachandran & Rogers-Ramachandran, 1996)
Domain 4 -- Psychopharmacology
Drug action mechanisms
| Mechanism |
Effect |
Example |
| Receptor agonist |
Mimics neurotransmitter at receptor |
Nicotine at ACh receptors |
| Receptor antagonist |
Blocks receptor without activating it |
Haloperidol at D2 receptors |
| Reuptake inhibitor |
Blocks reuptake transporter, increasing synaptic concentration |
Fluoxetine (Prozac) at serotonin transporter |
| Release enhancer |
Increases neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminal |
Amphetamine reverses dopamine transporter |
| Enzyme inhibitor |
Blocks enzymatic degradation of neurotransmitter |
MAOIs block monoamine oxidase |
| Allosteric modulator |
Enhances or reduces receptor response to neurotransmitter |
Benzodiazepines at GABA-A receptor |
Tolerance and dependence
- Tolerance -- decreasing effect with repeated administration. Mechanisms: receptor downregulation, metabolic changes.
- Physical dependence -- withdrawal symptoms upon cessation. The withdrawal syndrome is often the opposite of the drug's acute effects (e.g., alcohol withdrawal produces hyperexcitability).
- Psychological dependence -- compulsive drug-seeking behavior driven by reward circuitry (mesolimbic dopamine pathway). Robinson and Berridge's (1993) incentive-sensitization theory: addiction involves sensitized "wanting" (dopamine) dissociated from "liking" (opioid/endocannabinoid).
Major drug classes and psychological effects
| Class |
Examples |
Mechanism |
Psychological effects |
| Stimulants |
Amphetamine, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine |
Increase catecholamine activity |
Alertness, euphoria, reduced appetite, anxiety at high doses |
| Depressants |
Alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates |
Enhance GABA / reduce glutamate |
Relaxation, disinhibition, sedation, amnesia |
| Opioids |
Morphine, heroin, fentanyl |
Agonists at mu-opioid receptors |
Analgesia, euphoria, respiratory depression |
| Hallucinogens |
LSD, psilocybin, mescaline |
5-HT2A receptor agonists |
Altered perception, synesthesia, mystical experiences |
| Cannabis |
THC, CBD |
Cannabinoid CB1/CB2 receptor agonists |
Relaxation, altered time perception, memory impairment, anxiolysis |
Cross-References
- james agent: The mind-body problem, pragmatic integration of biological and psychological explanations, and the historical roots of behavioral neuroscience in James's Principles of Psychology.
- kahneman agent: Neural correlates of System 1 and System 2 processing, dopamine's role in reward prediction error, and the neuroscience of decision-making.
- cognitive-psychology skill: The cognitive processes (attention, memory, perception, language) whose neural substrates this skill describes.
- clinical-foundations skill: Neurobiological basis of psychopathology and pharmacological treatment mechanisms.
- developmental-psychology skill: Brain development across the lifespan, critical periods, and the interaction of maturation and experience.
- research-methods-psych skill: Neuroimaging methodology (fMRI, EEG, PET, lesion studies) as research tools.
References
- Bliss, T. V. P., & Lomo, T. (1973). Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. Journal of Physiology, 232(2), 331-356.
- Eriksson, P. S., et al. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4(11), 1313-1317.
- Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (1962). Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex. Journal of Physiology, 160(1), 106-154.
- LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The Emotional Brain. Simon & Schuster.
- Maguire, E. A., et al. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8), 4398-4403.
- Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18(3), 247-291.
- Sperry, R. W. (1968). Hemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness. American Psychologist, 23(10), 723-733.
1---2name: behavioral-neuroscience3description: Biological foundations of behavior and mental processes. Covers brain structure and function (cerebral cortex, limbic system, brainstem, cerebellum, lateralization), neurotransmitter systems (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA, glutamate, acetylcholine), neural plasticity (synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, critical periods, experience-dependent change), and psychopharmacology (drug mechanisms, tolerance, dependence, major drug classes). Use when analyzing brain-behavior relationships, neurotransmitter function, neural development and plasticity, or pharmacological effects on cognition and behavior.4---5# Behavioral Neuroscience
6
7Behavioral neuroscience (also called biological psychology or psychobiology) studies the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. The central premise is that every psychological phenomenon -- perception, memory, emotion, decision-making, personality, psychopathology -- has a neural basis. This does not mean psychology is reducible to neuroscience; rather, understanding the brain constrains and enriches psychological theory. The field draws on neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neurochemistry, genetics, and pharmacology.
8
9**Agent affinity:** james (mind-body relationship, pragmatic integration of biological and psychological levels), kahneman (neural basis of dual-process cognition)
10
11**Concept IDs:** psych-brain-structure, psych-stress-response, psych-theories-of-emotion, psych-learning-theory
12
13## Behavioral Neuroscience at a Glance
14
15| # | Domain | Core Question | Key Methods |
16|---|---|---|---|
17| 1 | Brain structure | What does each brain region do? | Lesion studies, neuroimaging (fMRI, PET, CT), electrical stimulation |
18| 2 | Neurotransmitters | How do chemical messengers modulate behavior? | Pharmacological manipulation, receptor binding, microdialysis |
19| 3 | Neural plasticity | How does the brain change with experience? | Long-term potentiation, neurogenesis studies, critical period research |
20| 4 | Psychopharmacology | How do drugs alter brain function and behavior? | Clinical trials, dose-response studies, receptor affinity profiling |
21
22## Domain 1 -- Brain Structure and Function
23
24### Organizational principles
25
26The brain is organized both hierarchically (brainstem handles basic survival, cortex handles higher cognition) and laterally (left hemisphere is typically dominant for language, right for spatial processing and emotional prosody). Damage at any level produces specific, predictable deficits.
27
28### Major structures
29
30**Cerebral cortex.** The wrinkled outer layer, ~2-4 mm thick, containing roughly 16 billion neurons. Divided into four lobes:
31
32| Lobe | Location | Primary functions | Key areas |
33|---|---|---|---|
34| **Frontal** | Front | Planning, decision-making, voluntary movement, personality, working memory | Primary motor cortex (M1), prefrontal cortex (PFC), Broca's area |
35| **Parietal** | Top-back | Somatosensory processing, spatial awareness, attention | Primary somatosensory cortex (S1), posterior parietal cortex |
36| **Temporal** | Sides | Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, object recognition | Primary auditory cortex (A1), Wernicke's area, fusiform face area |
37| **Occipital** | Back | Visual processing | Primary visual cortex (V1), V2-V5 visual association areas |
38
39**Prefrontal cortex (PFC).** The most anterior part of the frontal lobe. Critical for executive functions: planning, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and social behavior. The case of Phineas Gage (1848) -- an iron rod through his left frontal lobe transformed a responsible foreman into an impulsive, socially inappropriate man -- provided early evidence for PFC's role in personality and self-regulation.
40
41**Limbic system.** A circuit of interconnected structures deep within the brain:
42
43- **Amygdala** -- fear conditioning, threat detection, emotional memory. Lesions produce Kluver-Bucy syndrome (absence of fear, oral exploration of objects). LeDoux (1996) identified two pathways: a fast "low road" (thalamus to amygdala, rapid threat response) and a slow "high road" (thalamus to cortex to amygdala, deliberate evaluation).
44- **Hippocampus** -- memory consolidation (transfer from short-term to long-term memory), spatial navigation. Patient H.M.'s bilateral hippocampal removal produced severe anterograde amnesia. London taxi drivers show enlarged posterior hippocampi (Maguire et al., 2000).
45- **Hypothalamus** -- homeostatic regulation: hunger, thirst, temperature, circadian rhythms, hormonal control via the pituitary gland. The four F's: feeding, fighting, fleeing, and mating.
46
47**Basal ganglia.** Subcortical nuclei (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus) involved in motor control, procedural learning, and reward processing. Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra causes Parkinson's disease (tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia).
48
49**Cerebellum.** "Little brain" at the posterior base. Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, motor learning, and (increasingly recognized) cognitive functions including timing, prediction, and language processing. Contains more neurons than the rest of the brain combined.
50
51**Brainstem.** Midbrain, pons, and medulla. Controls vital functions: breathing, heart rate, sleep-wake cycles, arousal. The reticular activating system (RAS) in the brainstem regulates overall cortical arousal.
52
53### Lateralization
54
55- **Left hemisphere** -- language production (Broca's area) and comprehension (Wernicke's area) in ~95% of right-handers, sequential processing, analytical reasoning
56- **Right hemisphere** -- spatial processing, face recognition, emotional prosody, holistic processing, musical perception
57
58Split-brain studies (Sperry, 1968; Gazzaniga, 1967) in patients with severed corpus callosum revealed that the two hemispheres can operate independently, each with its own perceptions, memories, and even personality traits.
59
60## Domain 2 -- Neurotransmitter Systems
61
62Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released at synapses. They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, producing excitatory or inhibitory effects. The same neurotransmitter can have different effects at different receptor subtypes.
63
64### Major neurotransmitter systems
65
66| Neurotransmitter | Primary role | Imbalance associated with | Key pathways |
67|---|---|---|---|
68| **Dopamine** | Reward, motivation, motor control, working memory | Schizophrenia (excess in mesolimbic), Parkinson's (deficit in nigrostriatal), addiction | Mesolimbic (reward), mesocortical (cognition), nigrostriatal (motor) |
69| **Serotonin (5-HT)** | Mood regulation, sleep, appetite, impulse control | Depression, anxiety, OCD | Raphe nuclei to widespread cortical and limbic targets |
70| **Norepinephrine (NE)** | Arousal, attention, fight-or-flight, mood | Depression (deficit), PTSD (excess), ADHD | Locus coeruleus to cortex, limbic system, brainstem |
71| **GABA** | Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming | Anxiety (deficit), epilepsy (deficit) | Widespread inhibitory interneurons throughout the brain |
72| **Glutamate** | Primary excitatory neurotransmitter, learning, memory | Excitotoxicity in stroke, neurodegeneration | Widespread excitatory projections, NMDA receptors critical for LTP |
73| **Acetylcholine (ACh)** | Attention, memory, muscle contraction | Alzheimer's disease (deficit in basal forebrain cholinergic system) | Basal forebrain to cortex, neuromuscular junction |
74
75### Synaptic transmission
76
77The sequence: (1) action potential reaches axon terminal, (2) calcium influx triggers vesicle fusion, (3) neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft, (4) binds postsynaptic receptors, (5) produces excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potential, (6) terminated by reuptake, enzymatic degradation, or diffusion.
78
79Drugs alter behavior by modifying this process: agonists enhance transmission (by mimicking, increasing release, or blocking reuptake), antagonists reduce it (by blocking receptors or inhibiting release).
80
81## Domain 3 -- Neural Plasticity
82
83The brain is not hard-wired. It changes structurally and functionally in response to experience, injury, and development. Plasticity is the biological basis of learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.
84
85### Synaptic plasticity
86
87**Long-term potentiation (LTP).** Bliss and Lomo (1973) discovered that brief high-frequency stimulation of a neural pathway produces a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength. LTP at hippocampal synapses requires NMDA receptor activation and is widely regarded as a cellular mechanism of learning and memory. The key properties -- input specificity, associativity, and cooperativity -- map onto the properties of associative learning.
88
89**Long-term depression (LTD).** The complementary process: low-frequency stimulation produces a long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength. LTD enables forgetting and the weakening of unused connections, preventing saturation.
90
91### Neurogenesis
92
93New neurons are generated in the adult brain, primarily in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone (Eriksson et al., 1998). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is enhanced by exercise, enriched environments, and learning, and suppressed by stress and depression. Its functional significance is debated but likely involves pattern separation in memory.
94
95### Critical periods
96
97Hubel and Wiesel (1962) showed that monocular deprivation during a critical period in kitten development permanently altered visual cortex organization. The deprived eye lost cortical territory to the open eye (ocular dominance plasticity). Critical periods exist for language acquisition, binocular vision, and emotional attachment. After the critical period closes, the same experience produces much weaker plastic change.
98
99### Experience-dependent plasticity
100
101The brain's structure reflects its owner's experience:
102
103- **Musicians** show enlarged auditory cortex and motor cortex areas corresponding to their instrument (Schlaug et al., 1995)
104- **London taxi drivers** show enlarged posterior hippocampi proportional to years of navigating (Maguire et al., 2000)
105- **Braille readers** show expansion of somatosensory cortex for the reading finger (Pascual-Leone & Torres, 1993)
106- **Phantom limb pain** reflects cortical reorganization after amputation (Ramachandran & Rogers-Ramachandran, 1996)
107
108## Domain 4 -- Psychopharmacology
109
110### Drug action mechanisms
111
112| Mechanism | Effect | Example |
113|---|---|---|
114| **Receptor agonist** | Mimics neurotransmitter at receptor | Nicotine at ACh receptors |
115| **Receptor antagonist** | Blocks receptor without activating it | Haloperidol at D2 receptors |
116| **Reuptake inhibitor** | Blocks reuptake transporter, increasing synaptic concentration | Fluoxetine (Prozac) at serotonin transporter |
117| **Release enhancer** | Increases neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminal | Amphetamine reverses dopamine transporter |
118| **Enzyme inhibitor** | Blocks enzymatic degradation of neurotransmitter | MAOIs block monoamine oxidase |
119| **Allosteric modulator** | Enhances or reduces receptor response to neurotransmitter | Benzodiazepines at GABA-A receptor |
120
121### Tolerance and dependence
122
123- **Tolerance** -- decreasing effect with repeated administration. Mechanisms: receptor downregulation, metabolic changes.
124- **Physical dependence** -- withdrawal symptoms upon cessation. The withdrawal syndrome is often the opposite of the drug's acute effects (e.g., alcohol withdrawal produces hyperexcitability).
125- **Psychological dependence** -- compulsive drug-seeking behavior driven by reward circuitry (mesolimbic dopamine pathway). Robinson and Berridge's (1993) incentive-sensitization theory: addiction involves sensitized "wanting" (dopamine) dissociated from "liking" (opioid/endocannabinoid).
126
127### Major drug classes and psychological effects
128
129| Class | Examples | Mechanism | Psychological effects |
130|---|---|---|---|
131| **Stimulants** | Amphetamine, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine | Increase catecholamine activity | Alertness, euphoria, reduced appetite, anxiety at high doses |
132| **Depressants** | Alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates | Enhance GABA / reduce glutamate | Relaxation, disinhibition, sedation, amnesia |
133| **Opioids** | Morphine, heroin, fentanyl | Agonists at mu-opioid receptors | Analgesia, euphoria, respiratory depression |
134| **Hallucinogens** | LSD, psilocybin, mescaline | 5-HT2A receptor agonists | Altered perception, synesthesia, mystical experiences |
135| **Cannabis** | THC, CBD | Cannabinoid CB1/CB2 receptor agonists | Relaxation, altered time perception, memory impairment, anxiolysis |
136
137## Cross-References
138
139- **james agent:** The mind-body problem, pragmatic integration of biological and psychological explanations, and the historical roots of behavioral neuroscience in James's *Principles of Psychology*.
140- **kahneman agent:** Neural correlates of System 1 and System 2 processing, dopamine's role in reward prediction error, and the neuroscience of decision-making.
141- **cognitive-psychology skill:** The cognitive processes (attention, memory, perception, language) whose neural substrates this skill describes.
142- **clinical-foundations skill:** Neurobiological basis of psychopathology and pharmacological treatment mechanisms.
143- **developmental-psychology skill:** Brain development across the lifespan, critical periods, and the interaction of maturation and experience.
144- **research-methods-psych skill:** Neuroimaging methodology (fMRI, EEG, PET, lesion studies) as research tools.
145
146## References
147
148- Bliss, T. V. P., & Lomo, T. (1973). Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. *Journal of Physiology*, 232(2), 331-356.
149- Eriksson, P. S., et al. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. *Nature Medicine*, 4(11), 1313-1317.
150- Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (1962). Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex. *Journal of Physiology*, 160(1), 106-154.
151- LeDoux, J. E. (1996). *The Emotional Brain*. Simon & Schuster.
152- Maguire, E. A., et al. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*, 97(8), 4398-4403.
153- Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. *Brain Research Reviews*, 18(3), 247-291.
154- Sperry, R. W. (1968). Hemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness. *American Psychologist*, 23(10), 723-733.
majiayu000