majiayu000 Infrastructure as Code and Observability
Terraform Patterns
Module Structure
main.tf (resource definitions) | variables.tf (input declarations) | outputs.tf (output declarations) | versions.tf (provider/terraform version constraints) | README.md (module docs).
State Management
Remote backend: S3/GCS/Azure Blob with state locking. State locking: DynamoDB/Cloud Storage/Azure Blob lease. Workspace strategy: one workspace per environment (dev/staging/prod).
Security
Never commit secrets -- use secret managers | Encrypt state at rest | Use OIDC for CI/CD auth | Least privilege IAM roles.
IaC Principles (Kief Morris)
Reproducibility (same input, same output) | Idempotency (safe to run multiple times) | Immutability (replace, do not modify) | Version control (track all changes).
IaC Patterns
- Stack pattern: Complete infrastructure as single unit
- Library pattern: Reusable infrastructure modules
- Pipeline pattern: Infrastructure changes through CI/CD
Kubernetes Patterns
Core Concepts
Pods | Deployments | Services | Ingress | ConfigMaps | Secrets | PersistentVolumes | RBAC | NetworkPolicies | PodSecurityPolicies | Operators | Custom Resources | Controllers.
Production Patterns
Multi-tenancy with namespaces | Resource quotas and limits | Pod disruption budgets | Horizontal and vertical autoscaling.
Deployment Template
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: {{ .name }}
labels:
app: {{ .name }}
version: {{ .version }}
spec:
replicas: {{ .replicas }}
strategy:
type: RollingUpdate
rollingUpdate:
maxSurge: 25%
maxUnavailable: 0
template:
spec:
containers:
- name: {{ .name }}
image: {{ .image }}:{{ .tag }}
resources:
requests:
memory: {{ .memoryRequest }}
cpu: {{ .cpuRequest }}
limits:
memory: {{ .memoryLimit }}
cpu: {{ .cpuLimit }}
livenessProbe:
httpGet:
path: /health
port: 8080
initialDelaySeconds: 30
periodSeconds: 10
readinessProbe:
httpGet:
path: /ready
port: 8080
initialDelaySeconds: 5
periodSeconds: 5
HPA Template
apiVersion: autoscaling/v2
kind: HorizontalPodAutoscaler
spec:
scaleTargetRef:
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
name: {{ .name }}
minReplicas: {{ .minReplicas }}
maxReplicas: {{ .maxReplicas }}
metrics:
- type: Resource
resource:
name: cpu
target:
type: Utilization
averageUtilization: 70
- type: Resource
resource:
name: memory
target:
type: Utilization
averageUtilization: 80
Observability Design
SLO Design
Availability SLO: successful_requests / total_requests * 100
- 99.9% = 8.76h downtime/year | 99.95% = 4.38h | 99.99% = 52.6min
- Error budget = 100% - SLO target
Latency SLO: requests_under_threshold / total_requests * 100
- 99% of requests < 200ms | 99.9% of requests < 1000ms
Metrics Methods
RED Method (request-driven services): Rate (requests/sec) | Errors (error rate %) | Duration (latency p50, p90, p99).
USE Method (resources -- CPU, memory, disk): Utilization (% used) | Saturation (queue depth, waiting requests) | Errors (error counts).
Four Golden Signals (Google SRE): Latency | Traffic | Errors | Saturation.
SLO-Based Alerting
- Fast burn: >14.4x burn rate for 1 hour -> page
- Slow burn: >6x burn rate for 6 hours -> ticket
- Budget nearly exhausted: >50% consumed -> warning
Alert structure: alertname | severity | service | SLO name | current value | threshold | runbook URL | dashboard URL.
Dashboard Design (per service)
Request rate (RPS) | Error rate (%) | Latency distribution (p50, p90, p99) | SLO status and error budget | Resource utilization (CPU, memory) | Dependency health.
Three Pillars of Observability (Charity Majors)
- Logs: Event records with structured context. Use structured logging with correlation IDs.
- Metrics: Numeric measurements over time. Use RED/USE/Golden Signals.
- Traces: Request flow across services. Use distributed tracing with sampling.
Principles: high cardinality is essential | debug in production | understand unknown unknowns.
Pipeline Security
Security Stages
Pre-commit: Secrets scanning (pre-commit hooks) | linting. Tools: pre-commit | gitleaks | detect-secrets.
Commit stage: SAST | dependency scanning (SCA) | license compliance | secrets scanning. Tools: Semgrep/CodeQL/Bandit/SonarQube (SAST) | Dependabot/Snyk/Trivy (SCA) | Gitleaks/TruffleHog (secrets).
Build stage: Container image scanning | SBOM generation | image signing. Tools: Trivy/Grype/Clair (scanning) | Syft/CycloneDX (SBOM) | Cosign/Notary (signing).
Pre-production: DAST | API security testing | infrastructure security scanning. Tools: OWASP ZAP/Nuclei (DAST) | Checkov/tfsec/Terrascan (infrastructure).
Runtime: Runtime security monitoring | network policy enforcement | admission control. Tools: Falco/Sysdig (runtime) | OPA Gatekeeper/Kyverno (admission).
Secrets Management
Principles: never commit secrets | use short-lived credentials | rotate regularly | audit access.
- External secrets: fetch from vault at runtime (HashiCorp Vault | AWS Secrets Manager | GCP Secret Manager)
- SOPS: encrypt secrets in git with GPG/KMS (for GitOps workflows)
Supply Chain Security
- SBOM: Software Bill of Materials in SPDX or CycloneDX format, generated during build
- SLSA levels: L1 (documented build) | L2 (version control + build service) | L3 (isolated builds + signed provenance) | L4 (two-party review + hermetic builds)