Pgo

Profile-guided optimization

Contract

Inputs

• Compiler and version: required. GCC 16.2 or Clang 23.1.0 are current stable; each has its own profile format.
• A representative workload the instrumented binary can run: required.
• Build system: required for wiring; CMake shown below.
• Whether perf with branch sampling is available: required for SamplePGO and BOLT.
• Baseline flags already in use: required; PGO layers on -O2 or -O3.

Procedure

1. Decide whether PGO applies. Standard optimization comes first: -O2 or -O3, and -march= for the deployment CPU. PGO pays off on code where static heuristics guess wrong: branch-heavy paths, many hot and cold functions, call-heavy code where inlining decisions matter. Do not promise a percentage; the gain is measured in step 7. Done when: the user knows PGO is a candidate and what will decide it.
2. Run the GCC flow. Instrument: gcc -O2 -fprofile-generate -fprofile-dir=./pgo-data prog.c -o prog. Run the workload; .gcda files land in ./pgo-data/. Rebuild: gcc -O2 -fprofile-use -fprofile-dir=./pgo-data -fprofile-correction prog.c -o prog. Keep the same output name in both builds, because GCC derives the .gcda file name from the object name and a renamed second build reports -Wmissing-profile. -fprofile-correction reconciles counts from multi-threaded runs; include it. Done when: the three commands share one output name.
3. Run the Clang instrumented flow. Instrument: clang -O2 -fprofile-instr-generate prog.c -o prog_instr. Run the workload; it writes default.profraw, or per-process files with LLVM_PROFILE_FILE="prog-%p.profraw". Merge: llvm-profdata merge -output=prog.profdata *.profraw. Rebuild: clang -O2 -fprofile-instr-use=prog.profdata prog.c -o prog_pgo. Weight workloads with -weighted-input=3,a.profraw -weighted-input=1,b.profraw; inspect with llvm-profdata show --all-functions prog.profdata; compare two profiles with llvm-profdata overlap a.profdata b.profdata. Done when: the merged .profdata exists and the rebuild command names it.
4. Add context-sensitive PGO when inlining decisions matter: take the stage-1 .profdata, build clang -O2 -fprofile-use=stage1.profdata -fcs-profile-generate, run the workload, merge the new .profraw files into cs.profdata, and build the final binary with -fprofile-use=cs.profdata. Done when: the second-stage profile feeds the final build.
5. Use sampling when instrumentation overhead is unacceptable. Build with -fno-omit-frame-pointer, record perf record -b -e cycles:u ./prog < workload, convert perf script -F ip,brstack > perf.script, then llvm-profgen --binary=./prog --perfscript=perf.script --output=prog.profdata, and rebuild with -fprofile-sample-use=prog.profdata. GCC's sampling counterpart is -fauto-profile=<file> with a profile converted from perf data. Done when: the sample profile feeds the rebuild.
6. Apply BOLT after PGO when instruction-cache layout is the remaining cost. Link with -Wl,--emit-relocs. Collect perf record -e cycles:u -j any,u -o perf.data -- ./prog < workload, convert perf2bolt -p perf.data -o perf.fdata ./prog, or instrument with llvm-bolt prog -instrument -o prog.instr and run it (profile lands in /tmp/prof.fdata). Optimize: llvm-bolt prog -o prog.bolt -data=perf.fdata -reorder-blocks=ext-tsp -reorder-functions=cdsort -split-functions -split-all-cold -split-eh -dyno-stats. GCC 8 and later need -fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition at compile time for BOLT. Done when: the BOLT binary exists.
7. Measure. hyperfine --runs 5 "./prog_baseline < workload" "./prog_pgo < workload" --export-markdown results.md, or perf stat on each binary. Report the measured ratio and the noise across runs; a PGO or BOLT build that does not beat the baseline on the deployment workload is discarded. Done when: the numbers come from the user's workload.
8. Wire CMake with two options, PGO_INSTRUMENT adding -fprofile-instr-generate to compile and link options and PGO_USE adding -fprofile-instr-use=<path> to both, driven by two configure-build cycles into separate build directories. Done when: the two build directories and the profile path are named.

Failure and recovery

Output

A chat report with the ordered build, run, merge, and rebuild commands for the user's compiler, the optional CS-PGO, SamplePGO, and BOLT steps when they apply, the workload checklist verdict, and the measurement command whose result decides whether the build ships.