Staking

Staking Protocol Patterns

This skill provides comprehensive knowledge for auditing DeFi staking and reward distribution mechanisms.

Common Staking Patterns

1. Simple Staking (No Rewards)

contract SimpleStaking {
    mapping(address => uint256) public staked;

    function stake(uint256 amount) external {
        token.transferFrom(msg.sender, address(this), amount);
        staked[msg.sender] += amount;
    }

    function unstake(uint256 amount) external {
        require(staked[msg.sender] >= amount);
        staked[msg.sender] -= amount;
        token.transfer(msg.sender, amount);
    }
}

2. Reward Per Token Accumulator (Synthetix Style)

contract StakingRewards {
    uint256 public rewardPerTokenStored;
    mapping(address => uint256) public userRewardPerTokenPaid;
    mapping(address => uint256) public rewards;

    function rewardPerToken() public view returns (uint256) {
        if (totalSupply == 0) return rewardPerTokenStored;
        return rewardPerTokenStored +
            (rewardRate * (block.timestamp - lastUpdateTime) * 1e18 / totalSupply);
    }

    function earned(address account) public view returns (uint256) {
        return (balanceOf[account] *
            (rewardPerToken() - userRewardPerTokenPaid[account]) / 1e18) +
            rewards[account];
    }

    modifier updateReward(address account) {
        rewardPerTokenStored = rewardPerToken();
        lastUpdateTime = block.timestamp;
        if (account != address(0)) {
            rewards[account] = earned(account);
            userRewardPerTokenPaid[account] = rewardPerTokenStored;
        }
        _;
    }
}

Reward Distribution Vulnerabilities

1. Precision Loss

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Low precision accumulator
function rewardPerToken() public view returns (uint256) {
    // If rewardRate * timeDelta < totalSupply, result is 0!
    return rewardPerTokenStored +
        (rewardRate * (block.timestamp - lastUpdateTime) / totalSupply);
}

Secure Pattern:

// Use high precision (1e18 or 1e27)
function rewardPerToken() public view returns (uint256) {
    return rewardPerTokenStored +
        (rewardRate * (block.timestamp - lastUpdateTime) * 1e18 / totalSupply);
}

2. First Staker Advantage

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: First staker gets all pending rewards
function stake(uint256 amount) external {
    // If totalSupply was 0, rewardPerTokenStored didn't update
    // First staker claims all rewards since lastUpdateTime
    _updateReward(msg.sender);
    // ...
}

Secure Pattern:

function stake(uint256 amount) external {
    _updateReward(msg.sender);
    // If first staker, reset lastUpdateTime
    if (totalSupply == 0) {
        lastUpdateTime = block.timestamp;
    }
    // ...
}

3. Late Staker Dilution Attack

1. Attacker waits for rewards to accumulate
2. Stakes large amount just before reward distribution
3. Claims disproportionate rewards
4. Unstakes immediately

Mitigation: Time-weighted rewards or lock periods

4. Reward Calculation Overflow

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Can overflow with large values
uint256 pending = balance * rewardPerToken / 1e18;
// If balance and rewardPerToken are both large...

Secure Pattern:

// Use mulDiv to avoid overflow
uint256 pending = FullMath.mulDiv(balance, rewardPerToken, 1e18);

Lock Period Vulnerabilities

1. Lockup Bypass

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Lock only checked on unstake
function unstake(uint256 amount) external {
    require(block.timestamp >= lockEnd[msg.sender], "Locked");
    // But user can transfer stake tokens!
}

Secure Pattern:

// Non-transferable during lock, or track per-deposit locks
function _beforeTokenTransfer(address from, address to, uint256) internal {
    if (from != address(0) && to != address(0)) {
        require(block.timestamp >= lockEnd[from], "Locked");
    }
}

2. Lock Extension Manipulation

// If lock period extends on additional stake
// User might be tricked into longer lock than expected

// Always show clear lock end time before stake

Unstaking Vulnerabilities

1. Unstake Reentrancy

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Reward sent before state update
function unstake(uint256 amount) external {
    uint256 reward = earned(msg.sender);
    rewardToken.transfer(msg.sender, reward); // External call!
    balances[msg.sender] -= amount; // State update after
}

Secure Pattern:

function unstake(uint256 amount) external nonReentrant {
    uint256 reward = earned(msg.sender);
    balances[msg.sender] -= amount; // State first
    rewards[msg.sender] = 0;
    rewardToken.transfer(msg.sender, reward);
    stakedToken.transfer(msg.sender, amount);
}

2. Dust Stuck in Contract

// Rounding can leave tiny amounts stuck
// Ensure users can withdraw their full balance

function unstake(uint256 amount) external {
    if (amount == type(uint256).max) {
        amount = balances[msg.sender];
    }
    // ...
}

Multi-Reward Token Patterns

Multiple Reward Accumulators

contract MultiRewards {
    struct Reward {
        uint256 rewardPerTokenStored;
        uint256 rewardRate;
        uint256 lastUpdateTime;
    }

    mapping(address => Reward) public rewardData;
    mapping(address => mapping(address => uint256)) public userRewardPerTokenPaid;

    function earned(address account, address rewardToken)
        public view returns (uint256)
    {
        // Similar to single reward but per token
    }
}

Vulnerability: Different Update Frequencies

// If reward tokens update at different times
// Can lead to incorrect calculations

// Always update ALL reward tokens together
modifier updateRewards(address account) {
    for (uint i = 0; i < rewardTokens.length; i++) {
        _updateReward(rewardTokens[i], account);
    }
    _;
}

Boosted Staking

veToken / Gauge Patterns

// Boost based on lock duration
function getBoost(address user) public view returns (uint256) {
    uint256 lockDuration = lockEnd[user] - block.timestamp;
    return 1e18 + (lockDuration * maxBoost / maxLockDuration);
}

function earned(address user) public view returns (uint256) {
    uint256 boost = getBoost(user);
    return baseEarned(user) * boost / 1e18;
}

Boost Manipulation

// Attacker repeatedly extends lock to maintain boost
// While others with same stake earn less

// Mitigation: Time-averaged boost or snapshot boost

Staking Audit Checklist

Reward Calculation

• High precision used (1e18 minimum)
• No overflow in multiplication
• Division before multiplication avoided
• Zero totalSupply handled

First/Late Staker

• First staker doesn't get all pending rewards
• Late staker can't dilute existing stakers unfairly
• Rewards accrue correctly when totalSupply changes

Lock Periods

• Lock enforced on transfers (not just unstake)
• Lock extension clearly communicated
• No lock bypass via stake token transfer

Reentrancy

• CEI pattern followed
• nonReentrant modifier on sensitive functions
• State updated before external calls

Edge Cases

• Zero stake amount handled
• Full unstake (max amount) works
• Dust doesn't get stuck
• Reward period end handled

Multi-Reward

• All reward tokens update together
• Adding/removing reward tokens safe
• Different decimals handled

Severity Classification

Critical

• Reentrancy on unstake/claim
• First staker steals all rewards
• Precision loss loses significant value

High

• Lock bypass possible
• Late staker dilution attack
• Reward overflow

Medium

• Dust stuck in contract
• Boost manipulation
• Reward token update desync

Liquid Staking Derivatives (LSD) Patterns (2025-2026)

Overview

LSDs (stETH, rETH, cbETH, etc.) introduce unique vulnerabilities when used in DeFi protocols.

1. stETH Rebasing Integration

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Caches stETH balance
mapping(address => uint256) public deposits;

function deposit(uint256 amount) external {
    stETH.transferFrom(msg.sender, address(this), amount);
    deposits[msg.sender] = amount;  // @audit Becomes stale after rebase!
}

function withdraw() external {
    uint256 amount = deposits[msg.sender];
    stETH.transfer(msg.sender, amount);  // @audit May not have enough after negative rebase
}

Secure Pattern:

// Use wstETH (wrapped stETH) which doesn't rebase
// Or track shares instead of amounts
function deposit(uint256 amount) external {
    uint256 sharesBefore = stETH.sharesOf(address(this));
    stETH.transferFrom(msg.sender, address(this), amount);
    uint256 sharesReceived = stETH.sharesOf(address(this)) - sharesBefore;
    userShares[msg.sender] += sharesReceived;
}

Search Queries:

Grep("stETH|wstETH|Lido|sharesOf", glob="**/*.sol")

2. LSD Depeg Risk in Lending

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Assumes 1:1 peg
function getCollateralValue(address user) view returns (uint256) {
    uint256 stEthAmount = stETH.balanceOf(user);
    return stEthAmount * ethPrice / 1e18;  // @audit Assumes stETH = ETH!
}

Historical Depeg Events:

• stETH depegged ~5% in June 2022
• rETH has traded at premiums/discounts
• cbETH experienced volatility during market stress

Secure Pattern:

function getCollateralValue(address user) view returns (uint256) {
    uint256 stEthAmount = stETH.balanceOf(user);
    uint256 stEthPrice = oracle.getPrice(address(stETH));  // Use actual price
    return stEthAmount * stEthPrice / 1e18;
}

3. Withdrawal Queue Vulnerabilities

LSDs have withdrawal delays:

*cbETH doesn't have native redemption, only DEX trading

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Assumes instant withdrawal
function liquidate(address user) external {
    uint256 stEth = collateral[user];
    stETH.transfer(liquidator, stEth);  // @audit Liquidator can't quickly sell!
}

4. Restaking Integration (EigenLayer)

When LSDs are restaked:

Risk Chain:

ETH → Lido (stETH) → EigenLayer → AVS
      ↓ Risk 1       ↓ Risk 2    ↓ Risk 3
    Slashing      Slashing     Slashing

Vulnerable Pattern:

// DANGEROUS: Not accounting for restaking risk
function acceptCollateral(address token) external view returns (bool) {
    return token == address(stETH);  // @audit Is this stETH restaked? Higher risk!
}

Search Queries:

Grep("EigenLayer|restake|AVS|operator", glob="**/*.sol")
Grep("rETH|cbETH|frxETH|sfrxETH", glob="**/*.sol")

LSD Audit Checklist

Rebasing Tokens (stETH)

• Uses shares not amounts for accounting
• Or uses wrapped version (wstETH)
• Handles negative rebase scenarios

Price/Peg

• Uses oracle for LSD price (not 1:1 assumption)
• Circuit breaker for extreme depeg
• Liquidation accounts for depeg risk

Withdrawals

• Understands withdrawal delay
• Liquidation mechanism accounts for illiquidity
• Emergency scenarios handled

Restaking

• Knows if LSD is restaked
• Additional slashing risk priced in
• Operator risk considered

Search Query Reference

# Find LSD usage
Grep("stETH|wstETH|rETH|cbETH|frxETH|sfrxETH", glob="**/*.sol")
Grep("Lido|RocketPool|Coinbase|Frax", glob="**/*.sol")

# Find rebasing handling
Grep("sharesOf|getSharesByPooledEth|getPooledEthByShares", glob="**/*.sol")

# Find restaking
Grep("EigenLayer|restake|restaking|AVS", glob="**/*.sol")