Translation Craft — Chinese-English Professional Translation Knowledge Base (Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance Framework)
A Chinese-English bidirectional professional translation knowledge base grounded in Yan Fu's "Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance" (信达雅) translation theory, covering four major domains — academic, business, technical, and legal — with terminology glossaries, sentence conversion templates, and quality checklists.
Quick Start
Example user inputs:
- "Help me translate this abstract into English, academic style"
- "Translate this contract clause into Chinese"
- "Translate this technical document into Chinese, keep the terminology accurate"
Agent processing workflow:
- Identify source and target languages
- Identify the domain (academic / business / technical / legal)
- Translate step by step following the three-tier Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance standard
- Output the translation with a key terminology reference table
1. Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance Translation Framework
1.1 Three-Tier Standard Definitions
| Tier |
Chinese |
Meaning |
How It Manifests in Translation |
| Faithfulness (信) |
Fidelity to the source |
Accurately conveys facts, data, logic, and tone of the original |
Consistent terminology, accurate numbers, no negation flips, preserved causal relationships |
| Expressiveness (达) |
Fluency and clarity |
The translation reads naturally in the target language with no comprehension barriers |
Word order adjustments, active/passive voice conversion, long sentence splitting, added connectives |
| Elegance (雅) |
Stylistic refinement |
The translation's style matches the register of the original, with precise and appropriate diction |
Academic texts use formal written language; business uses professional phrasing; legal uses standard legal language |
1.2 Translation Decision Priority
Faithfulness > Expressiveness > Elegance
When the three tiers conflict:
- Accuracy (Faithfulness) always comes first: It is better to produce a slightly stiff translation than to distort the original meaning
- Fluency (Expressiveness) comes second: Adjust word order and expression on the foundation of accuracy
- Style (Elegance) comes last: Elevate the writing style only after the first two are satisfied
1.3 General Translation Workflow
Step 1: Read the full text → Understand the main idea and context
Step 2: Identify the domain → Determine the terminology glossary and style requirements
Step 3: Translate sentence by sentence → Ensure "Faithfulness"
Step 4: Adjust word order → Achieve "Expressiveness"
Step 5: Polish the style → Pursue "Elegance"
Step 6: Back-translation check → Back-translate to verify no semantic distortion
2. Academic Translation Standards
2.1 Core Terminology Glossary
| Chinese |
English |
Usage Context |
| 显著性 |
statistical significance |
Statistical testing |
| 自变量 / 因变量 |
independent variable / dependent variable |
Experimental design |
| 假设检验 |
hypothesis testing |
Research methods |
| 文献综述 |
literature review |
Paper structure |
| 研究局限性 |
limitations |
Discussion section |
| 实证研究 |
empirical study |
Research type |
| 定性分析 / 定量分析 |
qualitative analysis / quantitative analysis |
Methodology |
| 同行评审 |
peer review |
Publication process |
| 交叉验证 |
cross-validation |
Machine learning / statistics |
| 置信区间 |
confidence interval |
Statistical inference |
| 元分析 |
meta-analysis |
Comprehensive research |
| 随机对照试验 |
randomized controlled trial (RCT) |
Medical / social sciences |
| 相关性 vs 因果性 |
correlation vs causation |
Research conclusions |
| 可复现性 |
reproducibility |
Research quality |
2.2 Academic Sentence Conversion Templates
Chinese → English common patterns:
| Chinese Expression |
English Academic Expression |
| 本文旨在探讨… |
This paper aims to investigate… / This study seeks to examine… |
| 研究结果表明… |
The results indicate that… / Findings suggest that… |
| 与前人研究一致 |
Consistent with prior research… / In line with previous findings… |
| 值得注意的是 |
It is noteworthy that… / Notably, … |
| 存在一定局限性 |
Several limitations should be acknowledged… |
| 未来研究可以… |
Future research could explore… / Further investigation is warranted… |
| 综上所述 |
In summary, … / To conclude, … |
| 如表 X 所示 |
As shown in Table X / As illustrated in Table X |
English → Chinese common patterns:
| English Expression |
Chinese Academic Expression |
| It has been well established that… |
已有大量研究证实… |
| The present study contributes to… |
本研究对…做出了贡献 |
| These findings have implications for… |
上述发现对…具有启示意义 |
| A growing body of literature suggests… |
越来越多的文献表明… |
| Controlling for confounding variables… |
在控制混杂变量后… |
2.3 Academic Translation Guidelines
- Tense: Use past tense for methods and results (was, were, found); use present tense for general conclusions (suggests, indicates)
- Person: Prefer passive voice or "this study"; avoid "I/we" (unless the target journal permits it)
- Abbreviations: Write out the full term with the abbreviation on first occurrence, e.g., "artificial intelligence (AI)"
- Citation format: Preserve the original citation format (APA/MLA/Chicago); do not convert between styles
3. Business Translation Standards
3.1 Core Terminology Glossary
| Chinese |
English |
Usage Context |
| 季度环比增长 |
quarter-over-quarter (QoQ) growth |
Financial reports |
| 同比增长 |
year-over-year (YoY) growth |
Financial reports |
| 毛利率 / 净利率 |
gross margin / net margin |
Financial metrics |
| 供应链 |
supply chain |
Operations |
| 尽职调查 |
due diligence |
Investment & financing |
| 股东权益 |
shareholders' equity |
Financial statements |
| 现金流 |
cash flow |
Financial analysis |
| 市盈率 |
price-to-earnings ratio (P/E) |
Valuation |
| 利益相关方 |
stakeholders |
Corporate governance |
| 战略合作伙伴关系 |
strategic partnership |
Business cooperation |
| 核心竞争力 |
core competency |
Strategic analysis |
| 品牌溢价 |
brand premium |
Marketing |
| 商业模式画布 |
Business Model Canvas |
Startups / strategy |
| 投资回报率 |
return on investment (ROI) |
Investment analysis |
3.2 Business Sentence Conversion Templates
Chinese → English:
| Chinese Expression |
English Business Expression |
| 我方愿与贵方建立长期合作关系 |
We look forward to establishing a long-term partnership with your organization. |
| 经双方友好协商 |
Following amicable negotiations between both parties, … |
| 请予以确认 |
We kindly request your confirmation. / Please confirm at your earliest convenience. |
| 随函附上… |
Please find enclosed… / Attached herewith is… |
| 就此事宜，我方立场如下 |
With regard to this matter, our position is as follows: |
English → Chinese:
| English Expression |
Chinese Business Expression |
| We regret to inform you that… |
我方遗憾地通知贵方… |
| Please do not hesitate to contact us. |
如有任何疑问，请随时与我方联系。 |
| We would appreciate your prompt response. |
烦请贵方尽快回复，不胜感激。 |
| Subject to the terms and conditions herein… |
依据本协议条款… |
3.3 Business Translation Guidelines
- Tone: Maintain polite and formal language; Chinese business correspondence tends to be more indirect and diplomatic than English
- Numbers and currency: Preserve original currency symbols; note exchange rates or equivalent values when necessary
- Company names: Use the official English name; do not translate company names independently
- Job titles: Refer to the company's official English job titles
4. Technical Translation Standards
4.1 Core Terminology Glossary
| Chinese |
English |
Domain |
| 应用程序接口 |
API (Application Programming Interface) |
Software development |
| 容器化 |
containerization |
DevOps |
| 微服务架构 |
microservices architecture |
System architecture |
| 负载均衡 |
load balancing |
Networking / operations |
| 持续集成/持续部署 |
CI/CD (Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment) |
DevOps |
| 版本控制 |
version control |
Development workflow |
| 延迟 / 吞吐量 |
latency / throughput |
Performance metrics |
| 端到端加密 |
end-to-end encryption (E2EE) |
Security |
| 大语言模型 |
large language model (LLM) |
AI |
| 向量数据库 |
vector database |
AI / data |
| 检索增强生成 |
Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) |
AI |
| 提示工程 |
prompt engineering |
AI |
| 幂等性 |
idempotency |
System design |
| 序列化 / 反序列化 |
serialization / deserialization |
Data processing |
4.2 Technical Translation Rules
- Do not translate code identifiers: Function names, variable names, and class names must remain as-is, e.g.,
getUserInfo() should not be translated
- Do not translate command-line commands: Commands like
docker run and git commit must remain as-is
- Prefer abbreviations: In technical documentation, write out the full term with abbreviation on first occurrence; use the abbreviation thereafter
- Chinese technical documents: Technical terms may be kept in English with Chinese annotations in parentheses, e.g., "使用负载均衡（Load Balancing）策略"
- English technical documents: Chinese concepts can use pinyin or English paraphrases; avoid inserting Chinese characters directly
4.3 Technical Document Structure Mapping
| Common Chinese Structure |
Common English Structure |
| 概述 |
Overview |
| 快速开始 |
Quick Start / Getting Started |
| 安装指南 |
Installation Guide |
| 配置说明 |
Configuration |
| 使用示例 |
Usage / Examples |
| 常见问题 |
FAQ / Troubleshooting |
| 更新日志 |
Changelog / Release Notes |
| 参考文档 |
API Reference / Reference |
5. Legal Translation Standards
5.1 Core Terminology Glossary
| Chinese |
English |
Usage Context |
| 甲方 / 乙方 |
Party A / Party B |
Contract parties |
| 不可抗力 |
force majeure |
Exemption clauses |
| 违约责任 |
liability for breach of contract |
Breach clauses |
| 知识产权 |
intellectual property (IP) |
Rights clauses |
| 保密义务 |
confidentiality obligation |
NDAs |
| 争议解决 |
dispute resolution |
Arbitration / litigation |
| 适用法律 |
governing law |
Applicable law |
| 仲裁条款 |
arbitration clause |
Dispute resolution |
| 连带责任 |
joint and several liability |
Liability allocation |
| 善意第三人 |
bona fide third party |
Contract enforceability |
| 管辖权 |
jurisdiction |
Court jurisdiction |
| 损害赔偿 |
damages |
Breach remedies |
| 不可撤销的 |
irrevocable |
Authorization / commitments |
| 生效日期 |
effective date |
Contract timeline |
| 竞业限制 |
non-compete clause |
Employment contracts |
5.2 Legal Sentence Conversion Templates
Chinese → English:
| Chinese Expression |
English Legal Expression |
| 本合同自双方签字之日起生效 |
This Agreement shall come into effect upon execution by both parties. |
| 任何一方不得擅自转让本合同项下的权利义务 |
Neither party shall assign any rights or obligations under this Agreement without prior written consent. |
| 本合同一式两份，双方各执一份 |
This Agreement is executed in duplicate, with each party retaining one copy. |
| 如有未尽事宜，双方另行协商 |
Any matters not covered herein shall be resolved through mutual consultation. |
English → Chinese:
| English Expression |
Chinese Legal Expression |
| Notwithstanding anything to the contrary herein… |
尽管本协议有任何相反规定… |
| To the fullest extent permitted by law… |
在法律允许的最大范围内… |
| The parties hereby agree as follows: |
双方特此约定如下： |
| IN WITNESS WHEREOF… |
以昭信守，双方于下述日期签署本协议。 |
5.3 Legal Translation Guidelines
- Precision is paramount: Legal translation demands the highest standard of faithfulness; every qualifier carries legal significance
- shall vs will: In contracts, "shall" denotes obligation while "will" denotes intent — they must not be interchanged
- Defined terms: Capitalized terms must be used consistently throughout; include a definition on first occurrence
- Numerical expressions: Monetary amounts should be expressed in both digits and words, e.g., "USD 10,000 (ten thousand US dollars)"
- No translator's notes: Legal texts should not include translator annotations; ambiguities should be escalated to legal counsel for clarification
6. Translation Quality Checklist
6.1 General Checklist
| Dimension |
Checkpoints |
Severity |
| Completeness |
Are there any untranslated sentences or paragraphs? |
High |
| Accuracy |
Are numbers, dates, and proper nouns accurate? |
High |
| Terminology consistency |
Is the same term translated consistently throughout? |
High |
| Logical relationships |
Are causal, contrastive, and parallel relationships preserved? |
High |
| Grammar |
Does the translation contain any grammatical errors? |
Medium |
| Fluency |
Does it read naturally, free of "translationese"? |
Medium |
| Formatting |
Are punctuation, numbering, and indentation consistent with the original style? |
Low |
6.2 Back-Translation Verification Method
Back-translate the output into the source language and compare it against the original to check for semantic drift:
Original (Chinese): 该实验在控制变量条件下进行
Translation (English): The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions.
Back-translation (Chinese): 该实验在受控条件下进行
Comparison: ✅ Semantically consistent — phrasing differs slightly but meaning is accurate
7. Agent Behavior Guidelines
7.1 Translation Output Format
For each translation task, the Agent should output in the following format:
【Domain】Academic / Business / Technical / Legal / General
【Source Language】Chinese / English
【Target Language】English / Chinese
---
【Translation】
(Formal translation content)
---
【Key Terminology Reference】
| Source | Translation | Notes |
|--------|------------|-------|
| … | … | … |
7.2 Operating Principles
- Ask before translating: If the domain of the source text is unclear, ask the user first
- Confirm terminology: When encountering polysemous technical terms, confirm the context with the user
- Preserve uncertain items: For translations you are not confident about, provide 2–3 candidate translations with explanations of when each is appropriate
- Add translator's notes: For content with significant cultural differences (e.g., idioms, allusions), a brief explanation may be appended after the translation
- Reject machine-translation style: Avoid word-for-word literal translation; ensure the output conforms to natural expression in the target language
7.3 Common Translation Pitfalls
| Pitfall Type |
Example |
Correct Approach |
| False friends |
"actually" ≠ 实际上 (closer to 其实 / 事实上) |
Choose the accurate meaning based on context |
| Chinglish |
"give you some color to see see" |
Use idiomatic English expressions |
| Over-paraphrasing |
Completely explaining an idiom in English, losing the original flavor |
Preserve the style of the original; add notes if necessary |
| Number traps |
十亿 = 1 billion (not 10 billion) |
Cross-check Chinese and English number unit conversions |
| Passive/active confusion |
Chinese prefers active voice; English often uses passive |
Adjust voice according to target language conventions |
| Negation transfer |
"I don't think he is right" ≠ 我不认为他是对的 |
Translate as 我认为他不对 |
| Missing articles (Chinese → English) |
Chinese has no article system; translators often omit a/the |
Check every noun phrase for required articles when translating into English |
| "respectively" placement |
Chinese 分别 can appear anywhere; English "respectively" must go at the end |
"A 和 B 分别是 X 和 Y" → "A and B are X and Y, respectively." |
| 万/亿 conversion |
万 = 10,000; 亿 = 100,000,000 — do not directly translate as million/billion |
1.5 万 = 15,000; 3 亿 = 300 million; 10 亿 = 1 billion |
1---2name: translation-craft3description: Delivers professional Chinese-English translation across academic, business, technical, and legal domains, adhering to the Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance framework with rigorous quality checks. Triggered by translation requests such as 'translate this', 'Chinese to English', or specific domain needs like academic paper or contract translation.4license: MIT5---67# Translation Craft — Chinese-English Professional Translation Knowledge Base (Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance Framework)89A Chinese-English bidirectional professional translation knowledge base grounded in Yan Fu's "Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance" (信达雅) translation theory, covering four major domains — academic, business, technical, and legal — with terminology glossaries, sentence conversion templates, and quality checklists.1011## Quick Start1213**Example user inputs:**14- "Help me translate this abstract into English, academic style"15- "Translate this contract clause into Chinese"16- "Translate this technical document into Chinese, keep the terminology accurate"1718**Agent processing workflow:**191. Identify source and target languages202. Identify the domain (academic / business / technical / legal)213. Translate step by step following the three-tier Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance standard224. Output the translation with a key terminology reference table2324---2526## 1. Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance Translation Framework2728### 1.1 Three-Tier Standard Definitions2930| Tier | Chinese | Meaning | How It Manifests in Translation |31|------|---------|---------|-------------------------------|32| **Faithfulness** (信) | Fidelity to the source | Accurately conveys facts, data, logic, and tone of the original | Consistent terminology, accurate numbers, no negation flips, preserved causal relationships |33| **Expressiveness** (达) | Fluency and clarity | The translation reads naturally in the target language with no comprehension barriers | Word order adjustments, active/passive voice conversion, long sentence splitting, added connectives |34| **Elegance** (雅) | Stylistic refinement | The translation's style matches the register of the original, with precise and appropriate diction | Academic texts use formal written language; business uses professional phrasing; legal uses standard legal language |3536### 1.2 Translation Decision Priority3738```39Faithfulness > Expressiveness > Elegance40```4142When the three tiers conflict:43- **Accuracy (Faithfulness) always comes first**: It is better to produce a slightly stiff translation than to distort the original meaning44- **Fluency (Expressiveness) comes second**: Adjust word order and expression on the foundation of accuracy45- **Style (Elegance) comes last**: Elevate the writing style only after the first two are satisfied4647### 1.3 General Translation Workflow4849```50Step 1: Read the full text → Understand the main idea and context51Step 2: Identify the domain → Determine the terminology glossary and style requirements52Step 3: Translate sentence by sentence → Ensure "Faithfulness"53Step 4: Adjust word order → Achieve "Expressiveness"54Step 5: Polish the style → Pursue "Elegance"55Step 6: Back-translation check → Back-translate to verify no semantic distortion56```5758---5960## 2. Academic Translation Standards6162### 2.1 Core Terminology Glossary6364| Chinese | English | Usage Context |65|---------|---------|--------------|66| 显著性 | statistical significance | Statistical testing |67| 自变量 / 因变量 | independent variable / dependent variable | Experimental design |68| 假设检验 | hypothesis testing | Research methods |69| 文献综述 | literature review | Paper structure |70| 研究局限性 | limitations | Discussion section |71| 实证研究 | empirical study | Research type |72| 定性分析 / 定量分析 | qualitative analysis / quantitative analysis | Methodology |73| 同行评审 | peer review | Publication process |74| 交叉验证 | cross-validation | Machine learning / statistics |75| 置信区间 | confidence interval | Statistical inference |76| 元分析 | meta-analysis | Comprehensive research |77| 随机对照试验 | randomized controlled trial (RCT) | Medical / social sciences |78| 相关性 vs 因果性 | correlation vs causation | Research conclusions |79| 可复现性 | reproducibility | Research quality |8081### 2.2 Academic Sentence Conversion Templates8283**Chinese → English common patterns:**8485| Chinese Expression | English Academic Expression |86|-------------------|---------------------------|87| 本文旨在探讨… | This paper aims to investigate… / This study seeks to examine… |88| 研究结果表明… | The results indicate that… / Findings suggest that… |89| 与前人研究一致 | Consistent with prior research… / In line with previous findings… |90| 值得注意的是 | It is noteworthy that… / Notably, … |91| 存在一定局限性 | Several limitations should be acknowledged… |92| 未来研究可以… | Future research could explore… / Further investigation is warranted… |93| 综上所述 | In summary, … / To conclude, … |94| 如表 X 所示 | As shown in Table X / As illustrated in Table X |9596**English → Chinese common patterns:**9798| English Expression | Chinese Academic Expression |99|-------------------|---------------------------|100| It has been well established that… | 已有大量研究证实… |101| The present study contributes to… | 本研究对…做出了贡献 |102| These findings have implications for… | 上述发现对…具有启示意义 |103| A growing body of literature suggests… | 越来越多的文献表明… |104| Controlling for confounding variables… | 在控制混杂变量后… |105106### 2.3 Academic Translation Guidelines107108- **Tense**: Use past tense for methods and results (was, were, found); use present tense for general conclusions (suggests, indicates)109- **Person**: Prefer passive voice or "this study"; avoid "I/we" (unless the target journal permits it)110- **Abbreviations**: Write out the full term with the abbreviation on first occurrence, e.g., "artificial intelligence (AI)"111- **Citation format**: Preserve the original citation format (APA/MLA/Chicago); do not convert between styles112113---114115## 3. Business Translation Standards116117### 3.1 Core Terminology Glossary118119| Chinese | English | Usage Context |120|---------|---------|--------------|121| 季度环比增长 | quarter-over-quarter (QoQ) growth | Financial reports |122| 同比增长 | year-over-year (YoY) growth | Financial reports |123| 毛利率 / 净利率 | gross margin / net margin | Financial metrics |124| 供应链 | supply chain | Operations |125| 尽职调查 | due diligence | Investment & financing |126| 股东权益 | shareholders' equity | Financial statements |127| 现金流 | cash flow | Financial analysis |128| 市盈率 | price-to-earnings ratio (P/E) | Valuation |129| 利益相关方 | stakeholders | Corporate governance |130| 战略合作伙伴关系 | strategic partnership | Business cooperation |131| 核心竞争力 | core competency | Strategic analysis |132| 品牌溢价 | brand premium | Marketing |133| 商业模式画布 | Business Model Canvas | Startups / strategy |134| 投资回报率 | return on investment (ROI) | Investment analysis |135136### 3.2 Business Sentence Conversion Templates137138**Chinese → English:**139140| Chinese Expression | English Business Expression |141|-------------------|---------------------------|142| 我方愿与贵方建立长期合作关系 | We look forward to establishing a long-term partnership with your organization. |143| 经双方友好协商 | Following amicable negotiations between both parties, … |144| 请予以确认 | We kindly request your confirmation. / Please confirm at your earliest convenience. |145| 随函附上… | Please find enclosed… / Attached herewith is… |146| 就此事宜，我方立场如下 | With regard to this matter, our position is as follows: |147148**English → Chinese:**149150| English Expression | Chinese Business Expression |151|-------------------|---------------------------|152| We regret to inform you that… | 我方遗憾地通知贵方… |153| Please do not hesitate to contact us. | 如有任何疑问，请随时与我方联系。 |154| We would appreciate your prompt response. | 烦请贵方尽快回复，不胜感激。 |155| Subject to the terms and conditions herein… | 依据本协议条款… |156157### 3.3 Business Translation Guidelines158159- **Tone**: Maintain polite and formal language; Chinese business correspondence tends to be more indirect and diplomatic than English160- **Numbers and currency**: Preserve original currency symbols; note exchange rates or equivalent values when necessary161- **Company names**: Use the official English name; do not translate company names independently162- **Job titles**: Refer to the company's official English job titles163164---165166## 4. Technical Translation Standards167168### 4.1 Core Terminology Glossary169170| Chinese | English | Domain |171|---------|---------|--------|172| 应用程序接口 | API (Application Programming Interface) | Software development |173| 容器化 | containerization | DevOps |174| 微服务架构 | microservices architecture | System architecture |175| 负载均衡 | load balancing | Networking / operations |176| 持续集成/持续部署 | CI/CD (Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment) | DevOps |177| 版本控制 | version control | Development workflow |178| 延迟 / 吞吐量 | latency / throughput | Performance metrics |179| 端到端加密 | end-to-end encryption (E2EE) | Security |180| 大语言模型 | large language model (LLM) | AI |181| 向量数据库 | vector database | AI / data |182| 检索增强生成 | Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) | AI |183| 提示工程 | prompt engineering | AI |184| 幂等性 | idempotency | System design |185| 序列化 / 反序列化 | serialization / deserialization | Data processing |186187### 4.2 Technical Translation Rules188189- **Do not translate code identifiers**: Function names, variable names, and class names must remain as-is, e.g., `getUserInfo()` should not be translated190- **Do not translate command-line commands**: Commands like `docker run` and `git commit` must remain as-is191- **Prefer abbreviations**: In technical documentation, write out the full term with abbreviation on first occurrence; use the abbreviation thereafter192- **Chinese technical documents**: Technical terms may be kept in English with Chinese annotations in parentheses, e.g., "使用负载均衡（Load Balancing）策略"193- **English technical documents**: Chinese concepts can use pinyin or English paraphrases; avoid inserting Chinese characters directly194195### 4.3 Technical Document Structure Mapping196197| Common Chinese Structure | Common English Structure |198|------------------------|------------------------|199| 概述 | Overview |200| 快速开始 | Quick Start / Getting Started |201| 安装指南 | Installation Guide |202| 配置说明 | Configuration |203| 使用示例 | Usage / Examples |204| 常见问题 | FAQ / Troubleshooting |205| 更新日志 | Changelog / Release Notes |206| 参考文档 | API Reference / Reference |207208---209210## 5. Legal Translation Standards211212### 5.1 Core Terminology Glossary213214| Chinese | English | Usage Context |215|---------|---------|--------------|216| 甲方 / 乙方 | Party A / Party B | Contract parties |217| 不可抗力 | force majeure | Exemption clauses |218| 违约责任 | liability for breach of contract | Breach clauses |219| 知识产权 | intellectual property (IP) | Rights clauses |220| 保密义务 | confidentiality obligation | NDAs |221| 争议解决 | dispute resolution | Arbitration / litigation |222| 适用法律 | governing law | Applicable law |223| 仲裁条款 | arbitration clause | Dispute resolution |224| 连带责任 | joint and several liability | Liability allocation |225| 善意第三人 | bona fide third party | Contract enforceability |226| 管辖权 | jurisdiction | Court jurisdiction |227| 损害赔偿 | damages | Breach remedies |228| 不可撤销的 | irrevocable | Authorization / commitments |229| 生效日期 | effective date | Contract timeline |230| 竞业限制 | non-compete clause | Employment contracts |231232### 5.2 Legal Sentence Conversion Templates233234**Chinese → English:**235236| Chinese Expression | English Legal Expression |237|-------------------|------------------------|238| 本合同自双方签字之日起生效 | This Agreement shall come into effect upon execution by both parties. |239| 任何一方不得擅自转让本合同项下的权利义务 | Neither party shall assign any rights or obligations under this Agreement without prior written consent. |240| 本合同一式两份，双方各执一份 | This Agreement is executed in duplicate, with each party retaining one copy. |241| 如有未尽事宜，双方另行协商 | Any matters not covered herein shall be resolved through mutual consultation. |242243**English → Chinese:**244245| English Expression | Chinese Legal Expression |246|-------------------|------------------------|247| Notwithstanding anything to the contrary herein… | 尽管本协议有任何相反规定… |248| To the fullest extent permitted by law… | 在法律允许的最大范围内… |249| The parties hereby agree as follows: | 双方特此约定如下： |250| IN WITNESS WHEREOF… | 以昭信守，双方于下述日期签署本协议。 |251252### 5.3 Legal Translation Guidelines253254- **Precision is paramount**: Legal translation demands the highest standard of faithfulness; every qualifier carries legal significance255- **shall vs will**: In contracts, "shall" denotes obligation while "will" denotes intent — they must not be interchanged256- **Defined terms**: Capitalized terms must be used consistently throughout; include a definition on first occurrence257- **Numerical expressions**: Monetary amounts should be expressed in both digits and words, e.g., "USD 10,000 (ten thousand US dollars)"258- **No translator's notes**: Legal texts should not include translator annotations; ambiguities should be escalated to legal counsel for clarification259260---261262## 6. Translation Quality Checklist263264### 6.1 General Checklist265266| Dimension | Checkpoints | Severity |267|-----------|------------|----------|268| Completeness | Are there any untranslated sentences or paragraphs? | High |269| Accuracy | Are numbers, dates, and proper nouns accurate? | High |270| Terminology consistency | Is the same term translated consistently throughout? | High |271| Logical relationships | Are causal, contrastive, and parallel relationships preserved? | High |272| Grammar | Does the translation contain any grammatical errors? | Medium |273| Fluency | Does it read naturally, free of "translationese"? | Medium |274| Formatting | Are punctuation, numbering, and indentation consistent with the original style? | Low |275276### 6.2 Back-Translation Verification Method277278Back-translate the output into the source language and compare it against the original to check for semantic drift:279280```281Original (Chinese): 该实验在控制变量条件下进行282Translation (English): The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions.283Back-translation (Chinese): 该实验在受控条件下进行284Comparison: ✅ Semantically consistent — phrasing differs slightly but meaning is accurate285```286287---288289## 7. Agent Behavior Guidelines290291### 7.1 Translation Output Format292293For each translation task, the Agent should output in the following format:294295```296【Domain】Academic / Business / Technical / Legal / General297【Source Language】Chinese / English298【Target Language】English / Chinese299300---301302【Translation】303(Formal translation content)304305---306307【Key Terminology Reference】308| Source | Translation | Notes |309|--------|------------|-------|310| … | … | … |311```312313### 7.2 Operating Principles3143151. **Ask before translating**: If the domain of the source text is unclear, ask the user first3162. **Confirm terminology**: When encountering polysemous technical terms, confirm the context with the user3173. **Preserve uncertain items**: For translations you are not confident about, provide 2–3 candidate translations with explanations of when each is appropriate3184. **Add translator's notes**: For content with significant cultural differences (e.g., idioms, allusions), a brief explanation may be appended after the translation3195. **Reject machine-translation style**: Avoid word-for-word literal translation; ensure the output conforms to natural expression in the target language320321### 7.3 Common Translation Pitfalls322323| Pitfall Type | Example | Correct Approach |324|-------------|---------|-----------------|325| False friends | "actually" ≠ 实际上 (closer to 其实 / 事实上) | Choose the accurate meaning based on context |326| Chinglish | "give you some color to see see" | Use idiomatic English expressions |327| Over-paraphrasing | Completely explaining an idiom in English, losing the original flavor | Preserve the style of the original; add notes if necessary |328| Number traps | 十亿 = 1 billion (not 10 billion) | Cross-check Chinese and English number unit conversions |329| Passive/active confusion | Chinese prefers active voice; English often uses passive | Adjust voice according to target language conventions |330| Negation transfer | "I don't think he is right" ≠ 我不认为他是对的 | Translate as 我认为他不对 |331| Missing articles (Chinese → English) | Chinese has no article system; translators often omit a/the | Check every noun phrase for required articles when translating into English |332| "respectively" placement | Chinese 分别 can appear anywhere; English "respectively" must go at the end | "A 和 B 分别是 X 和 Y" → "A and B are X and Y, respectively." |333| 万/亿 conversion | 万 = 10,000; 亿 = 100,000,000 — do not directly translate as million/billion | 1.5 万 = 15,000; 3 亿 = 300 million; 10 亿 = 1 billion |
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