CSS Author

CSS Author Skill

This skill provides patterns for organizing CSS in modern, maintainable ways without build tools. We leverage native CSS features: @import for modularization, @layer for cascade control, and nesting for readability.

Philosophy

CSS should be:

1. Native - No preprocessors or build steps required
2. Modular - Organized by scope and purpose
3. Predictable - Cascade layers eliminate specificity wars
4. Semantic - Target elements, not class soup

File Organization Hierarchy

styles/
├── main.css                 # Entry point - imports everything
├── _reset.css               # CSS reset/normalize
├── _tokens.css              # Design tokens (custom properties)
├── _layout.css              # Site-wide layout (grid, body structure)
├── _components.css          # Shared components (buttons, cards)
├── sections/
│   ├── _header.css          # Site header/nav
│   ├── _footer.css          # Site footer
│   └── _sidebar.css         # Sidebar patterns
├── pages/
│   ├── _home.css            # Homepage-specific styles
│   ├── _blog.css            # Blog listing/post styles
│   └── _contact.css         # Contact page styles
└── components/
    ├── _gallery.css         # Gallery grid component
    ├── _tag-list.css        # Tag component styles
    └── _data-table.css      # Table wrapper styles

Naming Convention

• Underscore prefix (_reset.css): Partial files, imported by main.css
• No prefix (main.css): Entry point, linked in HTML
• Lowercase with hyphens: _tag-list.css, _data-table.css

The Entry Point (main.css)

The main stylesheet declares layers and imports partials:

/* Layer declaration - controls cascade order */
@layer reset, tokens, layout, sections, components, pages, responsive;

/* Reset (lowest priority) */
@import "_reset.css" layer(reset);

/* Design system tokens */
@import "_tokens.css" layer(tokens);

/* Site-wide layout */
@import "_layout.css" layer(layout);

/* Recurring sections */
@import "sections/_header.css" layer(sections);
@import "sections/_footer.css" layer(sections);
@import "sections/_sidebar.css" layer(sections);

/* Shared components */
@import "_components.css" layer(components);
@import "components/_gallery.css" layer(components);
@import "components/_tag-list.css" layer(components);
@import "components/_data-table.css" layer(components);

/* Page-specific styles */
@import "pages/_home.css" layer(pages);
@import "pages/_blog.css" layer(pages);
@import "pages/_contact.css" layer(pages);

/* Responsive overrides (highest priority) */
@layer responsive {
  @media (max-width: 768px) {
    /* Mobile overrides */
  }
}

Design Tokens System

Design tokens are CSS custom properties that provide consistent, themeable values across your design system.

Why Design Tokens?

Design tokens provide:

1. Consistency - Same values used everywhere
2. Maintainability - Change once, apply everywhere
3. Theming - Swap token values for different themes
4. Documentation - Token names describe purpose

Token Categories

Modern Color Formats

Use OKLCH instead of hex/RGB. OKLCH provides:

• Perceptually uniform lightness (consistent perceived brightness)
• Wider color gamut than sRGB
• Better color interpolation in gradients
• Easier programmatic color generation

OKLCH Syntax

/* oklch(lightness chroma hue) */
--primary: oklch(55% 0.22 260);  /* Blue */
--success: oklch(65% 0.2 145);   /* Green */
--warning: oklch(75% 0.18 85);   /* Orange */
--error: oklch(55% 0.22 25);     /* Red */

• Lightness: 0% (black) to 100% (white)
• Chroma: 0 (gray) to ~0.4 (vivid) - varies by hue
• Hue: 0-360 degrees (0=pink, 90=yellow, 180=cyan, 270=blue)

Relative Colors (Derive Variations)

Generate color variations programmatically from a base color:

:root {
  --primary: oklch(55% 0.22 260);

  /* Lighter: increase lightness */
  --primary-light: oklch(from var(--primary) calc(l + 0.2) c h);

  /* Darker: decrease lightness */
  --primary-dark: oklch(from var(--primary) calc(l - 0.15) c h);

  /* Muted: reduce chroma */
  --primary-muted: oklch(from var(--primary) l calc(c - 0.1) h);

  /* Hover: slightly darker and more saturated */
  --primary-hover: oklch(from var(--primary) calc(l - 0.08) calc(c + 0.02) h);
}

Theme-Aware Colors with light-dark()

Single declarations for both light and dark themes:

:root {
  color-scheme: light dark;  /* Required for light-dark() */

  /* Single token handles both themes */
  --text: light-dark(oklch(20% 0 0), oklch(95% 0 0));
  --surface: light-dark(oklch(100% 0 0), oklch(15% 0.02 260));
  --border: light-dark(oklch(90% 0.01 260), oklch(30% 0.02 260));
}

Color Mixing for Opacity/Blending

/* Semi-transparent overlays */
--overlay-light: color-mix(in oklch, black, transparent 95%);
--overlay-medium: color-mix(in oklch, black, transparent 90%);

/* Elevated surfaces */
--surface-elevated: color-mix(in oklch, var(--surface), white 5%);

/* Blend two colors */
--accent-blend: color-mix(in oklch, var(--primary), var(--secondary) 30%);

Gradients with Color Space

Specify color space to prevent muddy midtones:

/* Vibrant gradient interpolation */
background: linear-gradient(in oklch, var(--primary), var(--secondary));

/* For hue transitions, use longer path */
background: linear-gradient(in oklch longer hue, oklch(65% 0.25 0), oklch(65% 0.25 360));

Browser Fallbacks

For older browsers, provide hex fallback first:

:root {
  --primary: #2563eb;  /* Fallback for older browsers */
  --primary: oklch(55% 0.22 260);
}

Automatic Contrast with contrast-color()

The contrast-color() function automatically selects black or white text based on background:

/* Button with any background color */
button {
  background: var(--primary);
  color: contrast-color(var(--primary));
}

/* Dynamic accent backgrounds */
[data-accent] {
  background: var(--accent);
  color: contrast-color(var(--accent));
}

Combining with light-dark():

.badge {
  --bg: light-dark(var(--primary-light), var(--primary-dark));
  background: var(--bg);
  color: contrast-color(var(--bg));
}

Limitations:

• Returns only black (#000) or white (#fff)
• Uses WCAG 2 algorithm (may not be perceptually optimal for mid-tones)
• Browser support: Safari Technology Preview only (use as progressive enhancement)
• Does not guarantee WCAG compliance—verify contrast ratios for critical UI

Best practice: Use contrast-color() for dynamic/user-selected colors. For design system colors, manually define text colors to ensure optimal readability.

Complete Token System

/* _tokens.css */
@layer tokens {
  :root {
    /* Enable light-dark() function */
    color-scheme: light dark;

    /* ==================== COLORS (OKLCH) ==================== */

    /* Hue palette - define once, reuse everywhere */
    --hue-primary: 260;   /* Blue */
    --hue-secondary: 250; /* Slate */
    --hue-success: 145;   /* Green */
    --hue-warning: 85;    /* Orange */
    --hue-error: 25;      /* Red */
    --hue-info: 200;      /* Cyan */

    /* Brand colors with relative variations */
    --primary: oklch(55% 0.22 var(--hue-primary));
    --primary-hover: oklch(from var(--primary) calc(l - 0.08) calc(c + 0.02) h);
    --primary-light: oklch(from var(--primary) calc(l + 0.35) calc(c - 0.12) h);
    --secondary: oklch(50% 0.03 var(--hue-secondary));
    --secondary-hover: oklch(from var(--secondary) calc(l - 0.1) c h);

    /* Semantic colors */
    --success: oklch(60% 0.18 var(--hue-success));
    --success-light: oklch(from var(--success) calc(l + 0.32) calc(c - 0.1) h);
    --warning: oklch(75% 0.16 var(--hue-warning));
    --warning-light: oklch(from var(--warning) calc(l + 0.2) calc(c - 0.08) h);
    --error: oklch(55% 0.2 var(--hue-error));
    --error-light: oklch(from var(--error) calc(l + 0.38) calc(c - 0.12) h);
    --info: oklch(55% 0.14 var(--hue-info));
    --info-light: oklch(from var(--info) calc(l + 0.38) calc(c - 0.08) h);

    /* Theme-aware surface colors */
    --background: light-dark(oklch(100% 0 0), oklch(12% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));
    --background-alt: light-dark(oklch(98% 0.005 var(--hue-primary)), oklch(16% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));
    --surface: light-dark(oklch(100% 0 0), oklch(16% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));
    --surface-elevated: light-dark(oklch(100% 0 0), oklch(22% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));

    /* Theme-aware text colors */
    --text: light-dark(oklch(20% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)), oklch(96% 0.01 var(--hue-primary)));
    --text-muted: light-dark(oklch(45% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)), oklch(65% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));
    --text-inverted: light-dark(oklch(100% 0 0), oklch(10% 0 0));

    /* Theme-aware border colors */
    --border: light-dark(oklch(90% 0.01 var(--hue-primary)), oklch(28% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));
    --border-strong: light-dark(oklch(82% 0.01 var(--hue-primary)), oklch(38% 0.02 var(--hue-primary)));

    /* Theme-aware overlays using color-mix */
    --overlay-light: light-dark(
      color-mix(in oklch, black, transparent 95%),
      color-mix(in oklch, white, transparent 95%)
    );
    --overlay-medium: light-dark(
      color-mix(in oklch, black, transparent 90%),
      color-mix(in oklch, white, transparent 90%)
    );
    --overlay-strong: light-dark(
      color-mix(in oklch, black, transparent 80%),
      color-mix(in oklch, white, transparent 80%)
    );

    /* ==================== SPACING ==================== */

    --size-2xs: 0.25rem;   /* 4px */
    --size-xs: 0.5rem;    /* 8px */
    --size-m: 1rem;      /* 16px */
    --size-l: 1.5rem;    /* 24px */
    --size-xl: 2rem;      /* 32px */
    --size-2xl: 3rem;     /* 48px */
    --size-3xl: 4rem;     /* 64px */

    /* ==================== TYPOGRAPHY ==================== */

    /* Font families */
    --font-sans: system-ui, -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Roboto, sans-serif;
    --font-mono: ui-monospace, "Cascadia Code", "Source Code Pro", Menlo, monospace;
    --font-serif: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;

    /* Font sizes */
    --font-size-xs: 0.75rem;   /* 12px */
    --font-size-sm: 0.875rem;  /* 14px */
    --font-size-base: 1rem;    /* 16px */
    --font-size-lg: 1.125rem;  /* 18px */
    --font-size-xl: 1.25rem;   /* 20px */
    --font-size-2xl: 1.5rem;   /* 24px */
    --font-size-3xl: 1.875rem; /* 30px */
    --font-size-4xl: 2.25rem;  /* 36px */

    /* Font weights */
    --font-weight-normal: 400;
    --font-weight-medium: 500;
    --font-weight-semibold: 600;
    --font-weight-bold: 700;

    /* Line heights */
    --line-height-tight: 1.25;
    --line-height-normal: 1.5;
    --line-height-relaxed: 1.625;

    /* ==================== EFFECTS ==================== */

    /* Shadows */
    --shadow-sm: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);
    --shadow-md: 0 4px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
    --shadow-lg: 0 10px 15px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
    --shadow-xl: 0 20px 25px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);

    /* Transitions */
    --transition-fast: 0.15s ease;
    --transition-normal: 0.3s ease;
    --transition-slow: 0.5s ease;

    /* Border radius */
    --radius-sm: 0.25rem;
    --radius-md: 0.375rem;
    --radius-lg: 0.5rem;
    --radius-xl: 0.75rem;
    --radius-full: 9999px;

    /* ==================== LAYOUT ==================== */

    --content-width: 65ch;
    --content-width-wide: 80rem;
    --sidebar-width: 16rem;

    /* Z-index scale */
    --z-dropdown: 100;
    --z-sticky: 200;
    --z-modal: 300;
    --z-tooltip: 400;
  }
}

Dark Theme Approach

Recommended: Use light-dark() in the Complete Token System above. This eliminates the need for duplicate token definitions.

User-Controlled Theme Toggle (Legacy Pattern)

For sites with theme toggle UI that override system preference, use CSS :has() to scope token overrides:

/* Force dark mode when user selects dark */
:root:has(#theme-dark:checked) {
  color-scheme: dark;  /* Triggers light-dark() to use dark values */
}

/* Force light mode when user selects light */
:root:has(#theme-light:checked) {
  color-scheme: light;  /* Triggers light-dark() to use light values */
}

/* Auto follows system preference (default behavior) */
:root:has(#theme-auto:checked) {
  color-scheme: light dark;
}

Component-Specific Tokens

:root {
  /* Form tokens */
  --form-border: var(--border);
  --form-focus: var(--primary);
  --form-invalid: var(--error);
  --form-input-padding: var(--size-xs) var(--size-m);
  --form-input-radius: var(--radius-md);

  /* Button tokens */
  --button-padding: var(--size-xs) var(--size-l);
  --button-radius: var(--radius-md);
  --button-primary-bg: var(--primary);
  --button-primary-text: var(--text-inverted);

  /* Card tokens */
  --card-padding: var(--size-l);
  --card-radius: var(--radius-lg);
  --card-shadow: var(--shadow-sm);
  --card-bg: var(--surface);
}

Token Naming Guidelines

Use semantic names, not literal values:

CSS Layers (@layer)

Why Layers?

Layers provide explicit cascade control regardless of selector specificity:

@layer base, theme, utilities;

@layer utilities {
  .hidden { display: none !important; }
}

@layer base {
  button { display: inline-block; }
}

/* utilities wins over base, even with lower specificity */

Recommended Layer Order

Layer Benefits

1. No specificity wars - Later layers always win
2. Predictable overrides - Page styles override components
3. Safe imports - Third-party CSS can be isolated
4. Clear organization - Find styles by layer purpose

Custom Element Display Behavior

Custom elements (hyphenated tags like <product-card>) have specific display quirks that require understanding.

Browser Default: Inline

Browsers treat unknown elements as display: inline, breaking block-level layouts:

<!-- Renders INLINE by default! -->
<product-card>
  <img src="product.jpg" alt="..." />
  <h3>Product Name</h3>
</product-card>

This causes layout issues because the element doesn't create a block formatting context.

The :not(:defined) Solution

The :not(:defined) pseudo-class matches custom elements that haven't been registered with customElements.define():

/* In reset layer - catches ALL unregistered custom elements */
:not(:defined) {
  display: block;
}

This is ideal for CSS-only custom elements that will never be registered as Web Components.

Layer Specificity Warning

Critical: Unlayered browser defaults beat layered CSS. Even with @layer reset { ... }, browser defaults can override your styles.

/* May NOT work - layer has lower priority than browser default */
@layer reset {
  product-card {
    display: block;
  }
}

/* Solution: :not(:defined) has higher specificity */
:not(:defined) {
  display: block;
}

The :defined Pseudo-Class

For registered Web Components, use :defined to style after JavaScript loads:

/* Hide until component is defined */
product-card:not(:defined) {
  visibility: hidden;
}

/* Show when registered */
product-card:defined {
  visibility: visible;
}

Block vs Inline Custom Elements

Not all custom elements should be block. Consider the content model:

Elements with phrasing: true in elements.json are designed to be inline.

List Styling Patterns

Styling lists reliably requires understanding browser defaults and specificity.

Removing Default Bullets

The most reliable pattern for navigation and card lists:

/* In reset layer */
ul, ol {
  list-style: none;
  padding: 0;
  margin: 0;
}

Warning: list-style-type: none alone may not work in all contexts. Use the shorthand list-style: none for reliability.

Accessibility Note

When you remove bullets from a list, screen readers may not announce it as a list in Safari/VoiceOver. Add role="list" to preserve semantics:

<ul role="list">
  <li>Item with no bullet but announced as list</li>
</ul>

Custom Markers with ::marker

For custom bullets, use the ::marker pseudo-element:

li::marker {
  color: var(--primary);
  content: "→ ";
}

/* For specific lists */
ul[data-style="checkmarks"] li::marker {
  content: "✓ ";
  color: var(--success);
}

Numbered Lists with Custom Styling

ol {
  counter-reset: list-counter;
  list-style: none;
}

ol li {
  counter-increment: list-counter;
}

ol li::before {
  content: counter(list-counter) ". ";
  color: var(--primary);
  font-weight: var(--font-weight-semibold);
}

When to Use Each Pattern

CSS Scope (@scope)

The @scope at-rule limits selector reach to a specific DOM subtree without increasing specificity. While @layer controls cascade order, @scope controls where selectors can match.

Why @scope?

Basic Syntax

@scope (product-card) {
  /* These only match inside <product-card> */
  img {
    border-radius: var(--radius-md);
  }

  h3 {
    font-size: var(--font-size-lg);
  }
}

The scoping root (product-card) doesn't add to selector specificity—img remains (0,0,1).

The :scope Pseudo-Class

Reference the scoping root itself:

@scope (blog-card) {
  :scope {
    /* Styles the <blog-card> element */
    display: grid;
    gap: var(--size-m);
  }

  h3 {
    /* Styles <h3> inside <blog-card> */
    margin: 0;
  }
}

Donut Scope Pattern

Exclude nested sections with a lower boundary using to:

/* Style card chrome, but not user content inside */
@scope (blog-card) to (.card-content) {
  img {
    /* Only matches images in card header/footer, not in content */
    border: 2px solid var(--border);
  }
}

Use cases for donut scope:

• Style component wrapper but not slotted content
• Style card header/footer but not body
• Apply theme to shell but let content inherit differently

@scope with @layer

Combine scope and layers for full control:

@layer components {
  @scope (product-card) {
    :scope {
      container-type: inline-size;
      padding: var(--size-l);
    }

    img {
      width: 100%;
      aspect-ratio: 4/3;
      object-fit: cover;
    }

    @container (min-width: 400px) {
      :scope {
        display: grid;
        grid-template-columns: 200px 1fr;
      }
    }
  }
}

@scope vs Element Selectors

Both work for our custom element approach:

/* Element selector (our typical pattern) */
product-card {
  display: grid;
}

product-card img {
  border-radius: var(--radius-md);
}

/* @scope equivalent - cleaner for many child rules */
@scope (product-card) {
  :scope {
    display: grid;
  }

  img {
    border-radius: var(--radius-md);
  }

  h3 { }
  p { }
  footer { }
}

When to use @scope:

• Component CSS targets class selectors (.toolbar, .panel, .track) that could collide with other contexts
• Component has many child element rules that benefit from grouping
• Need donut scope to exclude nested content

When element selectors suffice:

• Selectors are already anchored to the custom element name (my-component > summary, my-component input) — these are inherently scoped and gain nothing from @scope
• Simple components with few rules
• Already using nesting effectively

Do NOT use @scope for style isolation:

• VB's @layer cascade is designed so tokens, native-element styles, and theme overrides flow into components. Using all: unset inside @scope to block inheritance would break this. @scope limits selector reach, not inheritance — use it for selector containment, not style isolation.

Prelude-less Scope (Inline Styles)

In component HTML, scope without a selector:

<product-card>
  <style>
    @scope {
      :scope { display: grid; }
      img { border-radius: var(--radius-md); }
    }
  </style>
  <img src="..." alt="..." />
  <h3>Product Name</h3>
</product-card>

The scope automatically targets the parent element.

Important Limitation

@scope limits selector reach, not inheritance. Inherited properties like color still cascade into excluded donut holes:

@scope (.card) to (.content) {
  :scope {
    color: blue;  /* .content still inherits blue! */
  }
}

To prevent inheritance, reset properties explicitly on the excluded element.

Browser Support

• Chrome 118+, Edge 118+, Safari 17.4+, Firefox 146+
• Wide support (90%+) - safe to use without fallbacks

Native CSS Nesting

Modern browsers support CSS nesting, reducing repetition:

/* Without nesting */
nav { }
nav ul { }
nav a { }
nav a:hover { }

/* With nesting */
nav {
  & ul {
    display: flex;
    gap: var(--size-l);
  }

  & a {
    padding: var(--size-xs) var(--size-m);

    &:hover {
      background: var(--overlay-light);
    }

    &[aria-current="page"] {
      background: var(--overlay-strong);
    }
  }
}

Nesting Rules

1. Use & for clarity - Always prefix nested selectors with &
2. Limit depth - No more than 3-4 levels deep
3. Keep related styles together - Element and its states
4. Avoid over-nesting - If selectors get complex, flatten

Nesting with Media Queries

Media queries can be nested inside selectors:

header {
  padding: var(--size-l);

  @media (max-width: 768px) {
    padding: var(--size-m);
  }
}

Element-Focused CSS (Classless)

Target Semantic HTML

Instead of inventing classes, style semantic elements:

/* Avoid */
.header-nav { }
.nav-list { }
.nav-link { }

/* Prefer */
header nav { }
header nav ul { }
header nav a { }

Custom Elements as Styling Hooks

Custom elements provide semantic styling targets without classes:

/* Instead of .form-group { } */
form-field { }

/* Instead of .product-card { } */
product-card { }

/* Instead of .table-wrapper { } */
table-wrapper { }

When Classes Are Appropriate

Use classes sparingly for:

Never use classes for state. Use data-* attributes instead.

Scope Hierarchy

When to Create a New File

Adding a New CSS File

1. Create the Partial

/* components/_gallery.css */
@layer components {
  gallery-grid {
    display: grid;
    gap: var(--size-m);

    &[data-columns="2"] { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, 1fr); }
    &[data-columns="3"] { grid-template-columns: repeat(3, 1fr); }
    &[data-columns="4"] { grid-template-columns: repeat(4, 1fr); }
  }
}

2. Add Import to main.css

/* In main.css, add to appropriate section */
@import "components/_gallery.css" layer(components);

3. File Template

Every partial should follow this structure:

/* components/_example.css */
@layer components {
  /* Element styles */
  example-element {
    /* Base styles */

    /* State variants via data attributes */
    &[data-state="active"] { }

    /* Nested elements */
    & .inner { }

    /* Responsive adjustments */
    @media (max-width: 768px) { }
  }
}

CSS Import Performance

Browser Behavior

Modern browsers handle @import efficiently:

• Parallel fetching when imports are at the start
• Caching of individual files
• No render-blocking beyond the cascade order

Best Practices

1. All imports at the top - Before any other CSS
2. Layer declaration first - @layer before @import
3. Use HTTP/2 - Multiplexing handles multiple files well
4. Consider concatenation for production if needed

When to Consolidate

For very high-traffic sites, you may want to concatenate CSS:

# Simple concatenation for production
cat styles/_reset.css styles/_tokens.css styles/_layout.css > styles/bundle.css

But for most projects, native imports work well.

Responsive Design Pattern

Mobile-First vs Desktop-First

We use desktop-first with max-width queries, grouped in the responsive layer:

@layer responsive {
  @media (max-width: 1024px) {
    /* Tablet adjustments */
  }

  @media (max-width: 768px) {
    /* Mobile adjustments */
  }

  @media (max-width: 480px) {
    /* Small mobile adjustments */
  }
}

Breakpoint Tokens

Define breakpoints as documentation (CSS can't use variables in media queries):

/* _tokens.css */
:root {
  /* Breakpoints (for reference - use literal values in @media) */
  /* --breakpoint-xl: 1280px; */
  /* --breakpoint-lg: 1024px; */
  /* --breakpoint-md: 768px; */
  /* --breakpoint-sm: 480px; */
}

Container Queries (@container)

Container queries enable component-scoped responsive design. Unlike media queries (which respond to viewport size), container queries respond to the size of a parent container.

Why Container Queries?

Use case: A card component that displays horizontally in a wide sidebar but stacks vertically in a narrow sidebar—without knowing where it's placed.

Defining a Container

Use container-type to establish a containment context:

/* Any element can be a container */
sidebar-panel {
  container-type: inline-size;  /* Width-based queries */
  container-name: sidebar;      /* Optional: name for targeting */
}

/* Shorthand */
main-content {
  container: content / inline-size;  /* name / type */
}

Container Types

Recommendation: Use inline-size for 99% of cases.

Writing Container Queries

/* Query any ancestor container */
@container (min-width: 400px) {
  blog-card {
    display: grid;
    grid-template-columns: 200px 1fr;
  }
}

/* Query a specific named container */
@container sidebar (max-width: 300px) {
  blog-card {
    flex-direction: column;
  }
}

Container Query Units

Container-relative units for truly fluid components:

Fluid Typography with Container Units

blog-card h3 {
  /* Font scales with container width, respects user zoom */
  font-size: clamp(1rem, 0.875rem + 0.5cqi, 1.5rem);
}

Rhythm-Aligned Spacing

Combine container units with lh (line-height) units for vertical rhythm:

blog-card {
  /* Gap scales with container but rounds to quarter-line increments */
  --gap: round(up, 2cqi, 0.25lh);
  gap: var(--gap);
}

The round() function ensures spacing aligns to the typographic grid.

Important Limitation

Container units cannot measure the element they're applied to. This would create a circular dependency. Use nested elements or wrapper patterns:

/* WRONG - card can't size based on its own container */
product-card {
  container-type: inline-size;
  padding: 2cqi;  /* Measures parent, not self! */
}

/* CORRECT - children measure the card container */
product-card {
  container-type: inline-size;
}

product-card > * {
  padding: 2cqi;  /* Now measures product-card */
}

Container Queries with Layers

Container queries integrate naturally with the layer system:

@layer components {
  /* Define containers at the component wrapper level */
  card-container {
    container-type: inline-size;
  }

  /* Base card styles */
  blog-card {
    display: flex;
    flex-direction: column;
    gap: var(--size-m);
  }

  /* Container-responsive layout */
  @container (min-width: 500px) {
    blog-card {
      flex-direction: row;
    }

    blog-card img {
      width: 40%;
      flex-shrink: 0;
    }
  }
}

Pattern: Self-Contained Responsive Components

Make components that adapt without external configuration:

/* components/_product-card.css */
@layer components {
  product-card {
    /* The card IS its own container */
    container-type: inline-size;

    display: grid;
    gap: var(--size-m);
    padding: var(--size-l);
  }

  /* Compact layout (narrow) */
  @container (max-width: 299px) {
    product-card {
      text-align: center;

      & img {
        margin-inline: auto;
        max-width: 150px;
      }
    }
  }

  /* Standard layout (medium) */
  @container (min-width: 300px) and (max-width: 499px) {
    product-card {
      grid-template-columns: 1fr;
    }
  }

  /* Wide layout (large) */
  @container (min-width: 500px) {
    product-card {
      grid-template-columns: 200px 1fr;
      grid-template-rows: auto 1fr auto;

      & img {
        grid-row: 1 / -1;
      }
    }
  }
}

Container Queries vs Media Queries

Use both—they serve different purposes:

@layer components {
  blog-card {
    container-type: inline-size;
  }

  /* Container query: responds to where card is placed */
  @container (min-width: 400px) {
    blog-card {
      grid-template-columns: 150px 1fr;
    }
  }
}

@layer responsive {
  /* Media query: global layout changes */
  @media (max-width: 768px) {
    .card-grid {
      grid-template-columns: 1fr;  /* Stack cards on mobile */
    }
  }
}

Nesting Container Queries

Container queries can be nested inside element selectors:

sidebar-panel {
  container-type: inline-size;

  & blog-card {
    padding: var(--size-m);

    @container (min-width: 350px) {
      padding: var(--size-l);
      display: grid;
      grid-template-columns: 100px 1fr;
    }
  }
}

Container Query Checklist

When implementing container queries:

• Set container-type: inline-size on the containing element
• Use container-name when multiple containers need targeting
• Prefer min-width for progressive enhancement
• Use container units (cqi, cqw) for fluid typography/spacing
• Apply container units to children, not the container element itself
• Use round() with lh units for rhythm-aligned spacing
• Keep container queries in the same layer as component styles
• Test components in various container widths

CSS Subgrid

Subgrid allows nested elements to participate in their parent's grid, enabling alignment across nested structures without duplicating track definitions.

Why Subgrid?

Basic Subgrid Pattern

/* Parent grid */
.card-grid {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: repeat(3, 1fr);
  gap: var(--size-l);
}

/* Card spans parent columns, subgrids rows */
.card {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-rows: auto 1fr auto;  /* header, content, footer */
}

/* With subgrid: all cards align their internal rows */
.card-grid {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: repeat(3, 1fr);
  grid-template-rows: auto 1fr auto;  /* Define rows at parent level */
  gap: var(--size-l);
}

.card {
  display: grid;
  grid-row: span 3;
  grid-template-rows: subgrid;  /* Inherit parent's row tracks */
}

Subgrid for Form Alignment

Align labels and inputs across form fields:

form {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: max-content 1fr;
  gap: var(--size-m);
}

form-field {
  display: grid;
  grid-column: span 2;
  grid-template-columns: subgrid;
}

form-field label {
  grid-column: 1;
}

form-field input {
  grid-column: 2;
}

Subgrid for Card Components

Cards with aligned headers, content, and footers:

/* Define consistent structure at grid level */
product-grid {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: repeat(auto-fill, minmax(280px, 1fr));
  grid-auto-rows: auto 1fr auto;  /* image, details, actions */
  gap: var(--size-l);
}

product-card {
  display: grid;
  grid-row: span 3;
  grid-template-rows: subgrid;
  gap: var(--size-m);
}

product-card img { grid-row: 1; }
product-card .details { grid-row: 2; }
product-card .actions { grid-row: 3; }

Subgrid in Both Directions

Inherit both column and row tracks:

.parent {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: 1fr 2fr 1fr;
  grid-template-rows: auto 1fr auto;
}

.child {
  grid-column: 1 / -1;
  grid-row: 1 / -1;
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: subgrid;
  grid-template-rows: subgrid;
}

Named Lines with Subgrid

Named lines pass through to subgrid:

.layout {
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns:
    [full-start] 1fr
    [content-start] minmax(0, 60ch)
    [content-end] 1fr
    [full-end];
}

.content {
  grid-column: full-start / full-end;
  display: grid;
  grid-template-columns: subgrid;
}

/* Child can use parent's named lines */
.content h1 {
  grid-column: content-start / content-end;
}

.content .full-bleed {
  grid-column: full-start / full-end;
}

When to Use Subgrid

Browser Support Note

Subgrid has good modern browser support (90%+). For older browsers, the fallback is a regular nested grid which may not align perfectly but remains functional.

CSS Logical Properties

Logical properties replace physical direction properties (left, right, top, bottom) with flow-relative alternatives. This enables layouts that automatically adapt to different writing modes and text directions.

Why Logical Properties?

Benefits:

• Internationalization - Layouts work in Arabic, Hebrew, and other RTL languages
• Future-proof - Vertical writing modes (CJK) work automatically
• Consistency - One codebase for all languages
• Semantic - Properties describe intent, not position

The Logical Model

CSS logical properties use two axes:

Each axis has two edges:

Property Mappings

Margins

Shorthand properties:

/* Two values: start and end */
margin-block: 1rem 2rem;   /* top: 1rem, bottom: 2rem */
margin-inline: 1rem 2rem;  /* left: 1rem (LTR), right: 1rem (RTL) */

/* Single value: both start and end */
margin-block: 1rem;        /* top and bottom */
margin-inline: 1rem;       /* left and right */

Padding

Same pattern as margins:

padding-block: var(--size-l);
padding-inline: var(--size-m);

/* Individual sides */
padding-block-start: var(--size-l);
padding-inline-end: var(--size-xs);

Sizing

blog-card {
  inline-size: 100%;
  max-inline-size: 40rem;
  min-block-size: 200px;
}

Positioning

Shorthand:

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